The term frestel is the most commonly used designation for the panpipe of the Middle Ages today. This likely stems from the instrument’s strong historical connection with France, where many of the leading figures in the early music revival - both makers and performers - have been based. The English term firstel, the Latin fistellum, and the Occitan frestal have largely fallen out of use.
What constitutes the panpipe today can vary by region, but they share the common feature of being edge-blown aerophones. Duct-blown variants are rarer and appear to be a later development (e.g., the Sforza Hours, c. 1490).
As a general rule, panpipe refers to the edge-blown instrument family. When a series of pipes are bound together, whether concave or otherwise, this is called a polycalame flute, unlike the monoxyle flute, which is made from a single block of material, into which the pipes are bored.
The term frestel may refer to both monoxyle and polycalame instruments, though the monoxyle frestel is the most common form and the focus of this study. Thus, frestel is generally understood to denote the monoxyle panpipe.
The “proximal end” refers to the part of the flute closest to the player’s mouth, while the “distal end” is the foot of the instrument.
A key focus of this study is an instrument found in iconography with a profile resembling the turned letter h (ɥ). The “ɥ instrument” refers to such instruments.
This work also references both an old and a new instrumentarium. The old instrumentarium consists of instruments in use before the spread of Islamic instruments across Europe, roughly up to the 12th century, and are typically of European or Byzantine origin. The new instrumentarium includes those from the Islamic world, which began to spread through Europe in the medieval period.
Introduction
The frestel, a medieval panpipe depicted in manuscripts, sculpture, and frescoes, is an instrument with a lasting legacy despite the absence of surviving physical examples. Its presence in visual representations spans religious depictions, such as King David and his musicians, to the more fantastical scenes in medieval marginalia, where grotesques, monsters, animals, and shape-shifters are shown playing the instrument. These depictions endow the frestel with dual significance, functioning both as a practical instrument and as a symbolic cultural artefact. It bridges the sacred and the profane, the human and the monstrous, occupying a multifaceted role in medieval society.
This study focuses on two primary aspects: the frestel’s varied representations in medieval art, and the reconstruction of it informed by those representations. By synthesising iconographic analysis, material reconstruction, and historical interpretation, we aim to understand the frestel as more than just a functional object. It reveals deeper cultural, social, and spiritual meanings embedded within its use and portrayal.
The 1976 recording of Chanson à refrain (A prisai qu’en chantant plour) by David Munrow offers one of the earliest recorded examples of the panpipe as a medieval instrument in the revival, with later reconstructions bringing the instrument into modern performance. Yet, the frestel remains relatively underrepresented in early music when compared to other instruments, despite its significant presence in iconography.
During the 1960s and 1970s, the early music revival brought numerous medieval instruments into the modern spotlight. However, the panpipe was largely overlooked during this period. While folk music traditions, particularly those from Romania, introduced the panpipe to Western audiences, it was not until the late twentieth century that the instrument gained some recognition in early music circles, and only in the last decade or two that it has gained momentum. Even so, the frestel remains a relatively obscure artefact in the broader historical instrument revival. Several factors contribute to this obscurity: the European countries that have significant panpipe traditions were behind the Iron Curtain, the lack of surviving medieval examples, the (historically) underdevelopment of music iconography, and the challenges associated with reconstructing the instrument based solely on artistic depictions.
In fact, the systematic study of medieval music iconography did not gain significant momentum until the formation of the Répertoire International d’Iconographie Musicale (RIdIM) in 1971 and the establishment of the Research Center for Music Iconography (REMI) in 1984. Since then, scholarship on medieval musical instruments has expanded, but the frestel has yet to achieve the same recognition as other instruments in early music revivals. The primary focus of these studies has been on instruments with a more consistent historical record, such as the recorder and the shawm, which have clearer traditions and a broader repertoire.
In modern times, however, the frestel has made some inroads, particularly in France, where makers such as Jeff Barbe, Jean-Daniel Talma, Benjamin Simao, and Antoine Malot have been at the forefront of promoting medieval-style instruments. Makers in other regions, including the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, and Eastern Europe, have also embraced the challenge of reviving medieval instruments, most notably based on the Jórvík specimen. However, these efforts often rely heavily on archaeological examples, which may not fully capture the subtleties of the frestel found in iconography.
The relative obscurity of the frestel in early music can be attributed to several factors. Technically, the frestel is challenging to play, it requires a singular technique quite different to other wind instruments, and the relatively small pipes and the reduced ability to feel pipes with the lips on a monoxyle instrument.
The scarcity of skilled luthiers capable of accurately reconstructing medieval instruments further complicates the situation. Additionally, the panpipe's sound - still associated with Andean music - remains alien to many listeners and is rarely linked with the medieval period. The lack of the frestel in conservatories and its disappearance from the musical landscape after the thirteenth century also contribute to its underrepresentation in modern performances. Lastly, the dominance of more versatile wind instruments, like the recorder and shawm, has made it difficult for the frestel to gain significant traction in contemporary early music.
Despite these challenges, the frestel holds substantial historical and cultural importance. Although the absence of physical examples limits our understanding, the frequent depictions of the frestel in a variety of artistic contexts emphasise its significance. The instrument was not only found in sacred contexts, but also in fantastical settings. This dual role highlights the frestel’s complex nature as both a functional musical instrument and a symbol.
Other instruments within the old instrumentarium have also often been somewhat overlooked. Instruments like the hornpipe and bowed lyre, for instance, have only recently gained greater attention: both instruments have made a resurgence, particularly in the context of early Scandinavian and “Viking” culture. Likewise, instruments such as the bukkehorn, lur, and bone flutes have experienced a revival, as part of the broader interest in early music and medieval heritage.
Denis Le Vraux’s reconstruction of the ɥ-formed frestel, based on depictions from the église du Vieux-Pouzauges, provides an important reference point for modern interpretations. His approach also incorporates insights from Roman archaeological findings. Similarly, Raúl Lacilla and Gonzalo Pieters have made significant contributions to the reconstruction of frestels.
While this project builds on earlier reconstructions, it focuses on gaining a more comprehensive view of the iconography than previous works - an area that remains under-explored. My reconstructions aimed to investigate how one-handed panpipe instruments, like the frestel, may have been used in the Middle Ages, as well as to explore the likely repertoire and performance techniques employed by musicians. This inquiry does not isolate the frestel from the broader old instrumentarium, particularly reed instruments we might call chalumeau, muses, or hornpipe, with which it may have had some interaction, and has certainly left space for future elaboration.
Reconstructions have generally drawn on archaeological finds, such as those from Jórvík, Eschenz and Alise-Sainte-Reine, which offer a more comprehensive understanding of medieval panpipe construction. However, contemporary reconstructions often prioritise these findings over iconographic depictions, leading to instruments that may not fully reflect the historical reality of the frestel. Few reconstructions rely on iconography and fully embrace the specific design and playing techniques shown in medieval artwork.
The limited surviving evidence of medieval panpipes consists primarily of fragments from earlier Roman-era periods. For the frestel, iconography remains our most reliable source of knowledge, though it has its limitations. Artistic depictions of the instrument in carvings, stained-glass windows, misericords, manuscripts, and frescoes show us that the frestel had regional forms throughout the medieval period. These depictions also highlight shared characteristics in both design and performance style, but we cannot be certain that these representations fully capture the exact construction of the instrument.
The absence of physical examples of the frestel mirrors the general scarcity of surviving medieval instruments. Instruments like the Dordrecht recorder have survived only under exceptional conditions, typically due to their preservation in waterlogged environments or their construction from durable materials like bone. The frestel's absence, likely due in part to the relatively early period in which it is found, and its wood construction, suggests it was more susceptible to decay over time. Despite this, its frequent appearance in artistic representations attests to its cultural significance.
The dual nature of the frestel - as both a sacred and a subversive object - underscores its role as a cultural artefact beyond its musical function. It reflects the medieval fascination with liminality, existing at the intersection of opposing forces: order and chaos, humanity and the animal world, the divine and the diabolical. By exploring the frestel’s multifaceted roles in medieval life, we gain insight into the broader cultural and societal implications of this unique instrument.
Roman-Era Panpipes
Uitgeest-Dorregeest (Netherlands)
Material: Boxwood
Date: Found in 1982, probably from the second half of the 2nd or first half of the 3rd century AD
Details:Eight pipes: lengths 90, 83, 77, 71, 66, 62, 59, and 53 mmDiameter: 8.5 mm at the topMore or less completely preservedProximal end is convexHole at the bottom approximately on the centre axis
Oosterhout, Nijmegen (Netherlands)
Material: Boxwood
Date: Approx. 2nd century AD
Notes: Proximal end is convex
Catalogue Number: 166
Aalter-Loveld (Belgium)
Material: Wood
Date / Notes:(None specified)
Eindhoven (Netherlands)
Material: Earthenware
Date: Roman period
Notes:Five conical pipesMight not be made for playing
Alise-Sainte-Reine (France)
Material: Possibly boxwood or oak
Date: Late 2nd – 3rd century AD
Details:Eight pipesFormer Celtic oppidum AlesiaMore or less completely preservedHole at distal end, centeredProximal end is convexDecorated with geometric figures: semi-circles and horizontal lines
Bon-Encontre (France)
Material: Bronze
Date:(Not specified)
Details:Seven pipesPossibly includes a finger hole
Rouhling (France)
Material: Stone (marble)
Date: End of the 3rd century AD
Notes: Ten pipes
Barbing-Kreuzhof (Germany)
Material: Boxwood
Notes: Proximal end is convex
Date:(Not specified)
Titz-Ameln (Germany)
Material / Date / Notes:(Not specified)
Eschenz (Switzerland)
Material: Boxwood
Date: 50–60 AD
Details:Seven pipesSlightly convex (“roof-shaped”)More or less completely preservedHole at distal end on center axis
Shakenoak (UK)
Material: Earthenware
Date: End of the 2nd century AD
Details:Seven cylindrical pipes with a conical endLikely originally had eight pipes
The material is not the only similarity between these Roman instruments: size, design, bevel and seven/eight pipes are all common features on Roman instruments.
There are two other similarities between Roman instruments and depictions of medieval frestels: (1) the decorations (as we can observe in examples such as the Psalter of Saint-Germain-des-Prés, and Jaca Cathedral), and (2) the convex proximal end.
The Jórvík Instrument
An incomplete panpipe dated 866-1066 was found in the 1976-1981 Coppergate excavations at York, England. Led by Richard Hall and the York Archaeological Trust the excavations took place with the aim of discovering the nature of the Anglo-Scandinavian occupation in York.
“Archaeologically, the city of York is one of the best known in the entire Viking world. Excavations at Coppergate (the ‘street of the cup-makers’) in the 1970s, and later at many more sites in the city, have revealed a densely packed, truly urban centre of timber buildings, many with cellars, organised into zones of manufacturing and craftwork. With a river frontage on the Ouse, and utilising the layout of the ruined Roman town, Jorvík was a major capital of the North and maintained trading connections in all directions. One of the glories of its archaeology is that many of the cultural deposits are waterlogged, preserving organic materials such as textiles and wood almost unchanged. Buried metres below the modern streets, whole cellars had survived nearly to waist height; the excavators could walk in through the doors. Clothing, musical instruments, furniture, and all kinds of household items and foreign exotica - even Chinese silks - have made Jorvík a baseline for our understanding of Viking urbanism.”
This instrument comprises of four complete pipes and one fragmentary pipe, all bored to different lengths. This so-called Jórvík panpipe has a hole in the body, the purpose of which is not known but the speculation is that a player may have hung it from a belt: a feature which is seemingly very popular among the modern day reproductions of frestels in general (but one which is never found in iconography, although it is found on surviving Roman instruments). The absence of pockets on Viking-Era clothing may reinforce this notion.
The Jórvík panflute, like its Roman counterparts, is crafted from boxwood, which raises the possibility that the tree used for its construction may not have been native to the UK. However, as the find consists of an incomplete panflute, the precise number of pipes remains uncertain. The minimum is believed to be five, a number that has influenced several modern reproductions. The surviving five pipes, which produce a scale approximating A-B-C-D-E, are another characteristic that contemporary makers have emulated.
Price (2020) suggests that, "the hearth was also the arena of stories - in humble farmers’ homes just as in the skaldic theatre of the halls. Musical instruments have been occasionally found, including the simplest wooden whistles and pan pipes, sometimes the bridge of a stringed lyre - these kinds of tones would have accompanied poetic recitals." This insight highlights the role of music in social and ritual contexts, which may also be reflected in the use of panpipes.
In addition to musical instruments, vocal traditions such as "galdr," were prevalent. Price notes that "there was also galdr, a high-pitched singing that, it has been argued, survives to a degree in the cattle-calls that are among the staples of Nordic folk music." This form of vocalisation may have provided an auditory link between music and the broader cultural practices of the time.
Further reflecting the significance of music in Viking-age rituals, Price describes an elaborate funeral preparation involving a ten-day period following the death of a prominent figure. The deceased was interred with various grave goods, including a musical instrument, which "strongly suggests that all this is intended for his entertainment pending the final funeral, and thus that the dead man is somehow aware." This observation underscores the cultural importance of music in both the living and the dead's experiences, with festivities in the camp also accompanied by music, drink, and revelry.
The Jórvík panflute itself presents an intriguing challenge for scholars. Unlike the typical iconography that typically depicts shepherds, monsters, or animals playing panpipes, the Jórvík artefact predates such depictions found in French sources by a significant margin. Moreover, it is somewhat unique as a Viking-Age instrument, adding complexity to its interpretation.
While several features of the Jórvík panflute - such as the hole at the end of the instrument, its design, which shares similarities with both medieval and Roman instruments, and the commonality of five pipes in medieval iconography - suggest connections to early panpipes, the significant differences make it difficult to categorise the Jórvík instrument as a direct example of the medieval panpipes in use across Europe at the time.
Medieval Frestels
780–856 – De Universo (Manuscript)
Instrument: Polycalame flute, played single-handed
Context: Pan playing the flute
c. 850 – Angers, King David
Instrument: Frestel
Context: Seen with King David playing the harp
9th Century – Arnhem-Velp, Gelderland, Netherlands (Artefact)
Instrument: Eleven stopped pipes
Material: Earthenware
Note: May have been a toy
10th Century – England, Jórvík Instrument (Artefact)
Instrument: Four complete pipes and one fragment
Material: Boxwood
Note: Possibly more pipes originally; Viking origin
11th Century
Roda Bible (Manuscript): Polycalame flute with seven pipes, shown with other musicians and acrobats
Anzy-le-Duc (Carving): Damaged square, double-handed; played by a sheep
Codex Taphou 14 (Manuscript): Large, possibly monoxyle, double-handed instrument played by a shepherd with a transverse flute; unique for its pairing
Psalter of Saint-Germain-des-Prés (Manuscript): Square/rectangular, single-handed, seven pipes; part of a musical ensemble with King David
Jaca Cathedral (Carving): Square, single-handed instrument held by King David
Loches (Carving): Unplayed instrument, held by a fox or dog—early depiction of the frestel
Bourbon-l'Archambault (Carving): Square, double-handed; possibly five pipes; played by human
Vermenton (Carving): Large square, double-handed, unplayed
Gravot (Carving): Double-handed; played by goat-like animal
Château-Larcher (Carving): Rectangle, two pipes, played by humanoid (possibly monkey)
Gap (Carving): Square, double-handed, seven pipes; played by human
Lusignan-Petit (Carving): Square, double-handed; played by human
Marnay (Carving): Damaged square instrument with five pipes; played by donkey
Anzy-le-Duc (Carving): Another depiction, square, double-handed; played by donkey
Melle (Carving): Square, double-handed; played by human
Massac-Séran (Carving): Square, double-handed; played by human
Nogaro (Carving): Double-handed instrument (pipes visible); played by King David
Champagnolles (Carving): One of two; damaged, square, double-handed
Iguerande Church (Carving): Concave instrument with seven pipes, polycalame flute; played by a Cyclops – only known concave Medieval example
12th Century
Battistero di Parma – Benedetto Antelami (Sculpture): Frestel, single-handed; played by a shepherd (in green, child-like)
Lacommande (Carving): Double-handed square; only known reference to multiple frestels used
Champagnolles (Carving): Square, single-handed; played by human
MS B.18 f.1r Psalterium Triplex (Manuscript): Square, single-handed, 7 visible pipes; King David
Beaune Basilica (Carving): Frestel, single-handed, five pipes, treble to right; played by donkey/horse while ringing bell
Brinay (Fresco): Square, single-handed, 7 or 8 pipes; early duet with chalumeaux – earliest known chalumeaux depiction
Santa Maria de Ripoll (Carving): Six-pipe polycalame, single-handed; blown from distil end
c. 1180 – San Isidoro, León (Fresco): Six-pipe rectangle instrument, single-handed; shepherd depicted
Chartres Cathedral (Carving): Single-handed, four-pipe frestel, treble to right; played by shepherd (Gothic style)
BnF, Latin 343 f.249v (Manuscript): Single-handed frestel; bell in other hand; played by humanoid
Notre Dame du Vieux Pouzauges (Fresco): Five-pipe, unplayed frestel; presumed single-handed (right hand), treble to left; figure of Joachim
1140–1160 – Église Saint-Nicolas de Civray (Carving): Single-handed frestel, bell in other hand; treble to right
1163–1173 – Liber Divinorum Operum, Hildegard von Bingen (Manuscript): Unplayed, single-handed (right hand), six pipes; treble to left
BnF, Latin 16291 f.2 (Manuscript): Single-handed frestel held by King David; player holds a stick with holes; horn-player has horn and hornpipe
Eglise Saint-Pierre-de-Marestay (Carving): Ten pipes, large size; played by unidentified human; possibly largest known medieval panpipe
13th Century
Cathédrale Notre-Dame de Laon (Stained Glass): Single-handed frestel; played by shepherd (Gothic style)
c. 1290 – David en andere muzikanten, fol. 2r (Manuscript): Single-handed (left hand) frestel, bell in right; six pipes, treble to left; played by King David
Romanesque art was inherently didactic, intended to educate and inspire a largely illiterate population. Musical instruments in these depictions often served a secondary role, enriching the visual narrative and reinforcing theological themes. The placement of frestels in marginal or symbolic settings mirrors their broader role as intermediaries between sacred and profane worlds .
The sculptural programmes of Romanesque cathedrals, such as the Royal Portals at Chartres, illustrate this integration of sacred and symbolic imagery. As Mâle (1913) notes, "The imagery of medieval iconography adhered to common rules for position, grouping, symmetry, and number," ensuring that no detail would surprise the congregation but instead reinforce established theological narratives .
The frestel stands as a testament to the interplay between music, art, and ideology in the Romanesque period. Whether depicted alongside King David, in pastoral settings, or as part of mythological narratives, the frestel embodies the complexities of medieval iconography. Its recurring presence highlights its dual function as both a functional instrument and a potent symbol of the intersections between sacred and secular, human and divine, myth and reality.
Other One-Handed Instruments
The frestel, a one-handed wind instrument, is not alone in the category of medieval instruments designed to be played with a single hand, leaving the other hand free to play percussion or perform other tasks. Several other one-handed instruments appear in medieval art and manuscript illuminations, suggesting that such instruments were not only common but also culturally significant in various contexts. Some of these instruments, such as the pipe and tabor, horn, and pipe and bell, share similarities with the frestel, particularly in their ability to combine melodic and rhythmic functions in a single performer.
Pipe and Tabor
The most well-known of these one-handed instruments is the pipe and tabor, which emerged around the thirteenth century. This combination of a small flute (the pipe) and a hand drum (the tabor) became particularly popular in the late medieval period, coinciding with the decline of the frestel. The pipe and tabor is a distinctive instrument because it allows the player to produce both melody and rhythm simultaneously, with the left hand playing the pipe and the right hand beating the drum. This combination of flute and percussion made the pipe and tabor an ideal instrument for accompanying dances and festivals, often performed in outdoor settings where portability and ease of use were crucial.
Horn and Drum
The horn and drum combination, depicted in various medieval sources, also follows the tradition of one-handed instruments. These instruments are often seen in celebratory or military contexts, as horns are typically associated with trumpets or fanfares signalling important events, while drums are used to keep rhythm. Horn and drum depictions in medieval art, such as those in the Bodleian Library MS. Bodl. 264 (fol. 68v), show their use in various social and ritual settings.
In the manuscript, we see the horn depicted alongside other long horns, suggesting a more ceremonial use. The drum, on the other hand, is depicted with a pipe and tabor (fol. 70r), where it is shown being played solo and directed towards an animal, possibly indicating a pastoral setting. This contrasts with the horn, which, as a loud, attention-grabbing instrument, might have been used in more public or celebratory contexts. The dual presence of these instruments in different settings hints at the variety of one-handed instruments in use at the time and suggests that such instruments had different roles depending on the social context.
Pipe and Bell
Another interesting one-handed instrument is the pipe and bell, a combination that can be seen in the depiction of Samuel and Jesse in the thirteenth-century Maciejowski Bible (MS. M.638, fol. 13v). This artwork continues the association of the shepherd with one-handed instruments, a connection we also see in the frestel. The bell here, likely held in the other hand while playing the pipe, could have been used to draw attention or add an extra layer of sound to the music. This kind of instrument is less common in medieval sources, but its connection to the shepherding tradition provides a fascinating glimpse into the pastoral musical practices of the time.
The Hunterian Psalter and the Triple Pipe
A curious depiction in the Hunterian Psalter (twelfth century, folio 21v), featuring King David tuning his harp, includes an unusual triple pipe. The triple pipe appears to be a one-handed instrument, though it does not seem to have finger holes, indicating a potential use as a simple drone or melody pipe. This instrument is similar in concept to the frestel, in that it is designed to be played with one hand while another task is performed with the other.
Two carvings of nearly identical instruments can be found at Beverley Minster in England, both of which are played single-handed while accompanied by a drum. This reinforces the notion that one-handed instruments, especially in a ritualistic or courtly context, were quite popular and possibly served a symbolic or ceremonial role, much like the frestel.
The Funeral of Reynard the Fox
An image from the thirteenth century English manuscript The Funeral of Reynard the Fox also features a one-handed instrument. In this depiction, an animal (likely a horse) is shown playing a flute with one hand while ringing a bell with the other hand. Another similar image from the same manuscript shows the animal playing the flute at an angle with the other hand engaged in playing a drum. These depictions suggest that one-handed wind instruments were not limited to human performers but were part of a wider iconographic tradition that could include animals as well.
This particular image is significant for several reasons. First, it presents an anthropomorphic element, with the animal playing instruments in a human-like manner. This could suggest that music and the use of musical instruments were not just associated with humans but also symbolic of higher social or cosmic orders. The animal's ability to perform music in this manner emphasises the ritualistic or sacred nature of these instruments as mediators between worlds.
The prevalence of one-handed instruments like the frestel, pipe and tabor, horn and drum, and others in medieval iconography suggests that these instruments were part of a rich and varied musical culture in the Middle Ages. The presence of these instruments in different social and ceremonial contexts, from pastoral scenes to celebrations and funerals, illustrates their multifunctional role in both secular and sacred settings.
The ability to play a wind instrument with one hand while using the other for percussion or other tasks reflects a practical need for portability and versatility. These instruments were likely employed in settings where the performer needed to be mobile - whether accompanying dances, rituals, or public performances. In particular, the frequent association of one-handed instruments with shepherds, as seen in the depictions of Samuel and Jesse and the Maciejowski Bible, suggests that these instruments were part of an oral and cultural tradition linked to storytelling, religious rites, and the rhythms of everyday life in medieval society.
Bibliography
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Dissertations and Thesis:
Alfred, Virginie. "In De Ban Van Pan: Archeologische Studie Van Twee Gallo-Romeinse Muziekinstrumenten Gevonden te Aalter-Loveld." Master's Thesis, Universiteit Gent, 2008-2009.
Conference Papers:
"Archaeology and Virtual Acoustics: A Pan Flute from Ancient Egypt." Conference Paper, July 2015.
"Virtual Reconstruction of an Ancient Greek Pan Flute." Conference Paper, September 2016.
Donahue, John A. "Applying Experimental Archaeology to Ethnomusicology: Recreating an Ancient Maya Friction Drum through Various Lines of Evidence." (n.d.)
Other Publications:
Kersalé, Patrick. Le Dieu Pan et la Nymphe Syrinx. APEMUTAM, 2006.
Lange, Silke. Het Culturele Vondstmateriaal van de Vroeg-Romeinse Versterking Velsen 1. Thesis, University of Amsterdam, 1997.
Montagu, Jeremy. The Dangers of Mediæval Iconography. 2019.
Reiners, Hans. "Reflections on a Reconstruction of the 14th-Century Göttingen Recorder." The Galpin Society Journal, Vol. 50 (March 1997), pp. 31-42.
Wachsmann, K.P. "Multi-Part Techniques." Journal of the International Folk Music Council, Vol. 19 (1967), pp. 110-112.
