Benji Rose

Medieval Percussion Instruments: A Comprehensive Study

Introduction

Although no physical instruments from before 1600 have survived and written music for percussion is virtually nonexistent, apart from Thoinot Arbeau's Orchésographie (1589), a comprehensive understanding of their construction, playing techniques, and historical context has nonetheless emerged. This knowledge is derived from a synthesis of diverse sources that bridge the gap between conjecture and informed reconstruction.

Renaissance treatises, including those by Sebastian Virdung (1511), Martin Agricola (1529), Michael Praetorius (1619), and Marin Mersenne (1636), are invaluable in this regard. Their detailed descriptions shed light on the evolution of percussion instruments and their role within the broader framework of musical performance.

Equally significant is the extensive medieval iconography that has survived. Illuminated manuscripts, sculptures, and stained-glass windows provide detailed visual evidence of percussion instruments in use. These depictions reveal much about the design, scale, and function of instruments such as frame drums, cylindrical drums, tabors, and tambourines. Moreover, the frequent appearance of percussion in scenes of social, ceremonial, and spiritual activity underscores its integral role in medieval life, whether in dances, processions, or religious rites.

Modern percussion practices offer another critical avenue of insight. Unlike many string or wind instruments, certain types of percussion instruments have remained remarkably consistent in both design and technique over centuries. Frame drums and tambourines, for example, have changed little in their essential form. This continuity allows for reasonable inferences that medieval playing techniques closely resembled those observed in various global traditions today. The similarity of techniques across cultures lends further support to the idea that the performance methods employed in the Middle Ages were not vastly different from modern practices.

We must rely on the extensive existing iconography, comparing the hand positions in an old sculpture or painting with those of a modern adufeira or tamburello player, to understand, not merely imagine, the techniques they employed and the sounds they drew from these instruments.

While the absence of surviving instruments and extensive written records poses challenges, the convergence of Renaissance treatises, medieval visual art, and enduring modern practices paints a vibrant picture of medieval percussion. These sources collectively illuminate a tradition deeply embedded in the social, ceremonial, and spiritual fabric of medieval life, offering a rare glimpse into the soundscapes of an enigmatic era.

Historical Development and the Evolution of Percussion

Early Medieval Period: Limited Instrumentarium

Prior to the mid-twelfth century, percussion instruments were rather limited in variety. The medieval musical landscape was dominated by circular frame drums, which served as the primary percussive voice in both secular and sacred contexts. These early instruments laid the foundation for what would become a much more diverse and sophisticated percussion tradition.

The New Instrumentarium: Expansion and Innovation

With the arrival of the New Instrumentarium in the mid-twelfth century, the percussion section of medieval music expanded dramatically. This period witnessed the introduction of several key instruments that would define medieval percussion:

  • Bells: Both handheld and larger ceremonial variants

  • The Santur: A hammered dulcimer

  • Square Frame Drums: Distinctive quadrilateral variants of  circular drums

  • Clappers: Simple but effective rhythmic instruments

This expansion reflected broader cultural exchanges, particularly through the Crusades and increased trade contacts with the Islamic world and Byzantine Empire.

Terminology and Linguistic Heritage

The terminology surrounding medieval percussion instruments reveals the complex web of cultural exchange that characterised the period. In the field of percussion, it is common to find that an instrument, a part of it, or even a playing style can be defined differently, with the same terminology acquiring various meanings depending on the region, culture, people, or function it serves.

Old English and Germanic Traditions: The word for drum in Old English wasn't exactly "drum" as we use it today, but related terms included "timbre" or "druma," though these weren't common. The closest equivalent for a drum-like instrument in Old English would likely have been terms related to "timbre" (wood or sound) or "druma" (possibly a more general word for a thundering sound).

Norse Influence: In Old Norse, the word for a drum-like instrument was "tromma," which was used to refer to a drum. This term is still present in modern Scandinavian languages, such as Swedish "trumma" and Norwegian "tromme," demonstrating the linguistic continuity that helps us understand medieval practices.

Literary Evidence: Percussion in Medieval Texts

Medieval literature provides crucial contextual evidence for the role and significance of percussion instruments. These references not only confirm the presence of specific instruments but also illuminate their social and ceremonial functions.

King Richard Coeur de Lion (14th century) provides one of the most vivid descriptions of percussion in courtly settings:

"King Richard was set on des,
With dukes and earlys prowd in pres;
Fro kechene com þe fyrste cours,
WiÞ pypes, and trumpes, and tabours."

This passage establishes the tabor as an integral part of courtly entertainment, alongside pipes and trumpets, suggesting a well-developed tradition of ensemble playing.

Sir Orfeo (c. 1400) further emphasizes the processional and ceremonial role of percussion:

"With esy pace and wele avysed,
Taberis and pypes yeden hem by
And alle maner of mynstrelsy"

The association of tabors with pipes and "alle maner of mynstrelsy" indicates their central role in the broader musical culture of the time.

Ranulf Higden's Polychronicon (1387) reinforces this association:

"They haueth in greet mangerie
Harpe, tabor, and pype for mynstralcie."

Perhaps most poetically, Adam de la Halle's Le Jeu de Robin et de Marion (late 13th century) provides insight into the sonic landscape of medieval performance:

"Cil sert de harp, cil de rote
Cil de gigue, cil de viele
Cil de flaiiste, cil chalemele
Sonent timbre, sonent tabor:
Muses, estivcs et fretel
Et buisines et chalemel."

This passage ("Sound timbre, sound tabor") places percussion instruments at the heart of medieval musical expression, equal in importance to string and wind instruments.

The Kettle Drum Tradition: From Nakers to Timpani

The Naker: Foundation of the Kettle Drum Family

The kettle drum, or timpani, occupies a distinguished position as one of the earliest percussion instruments incorporated into symphonic ensembles. By the 16th century, it had achieved prominence as a key component in both military and ceremonial contexts. However, its medieval predecessor, the naker, represents one of the most significant developments in European percussion history.

Origins and Cultural Exchange: The kettle drum likely evolved from smaller portable drums such as the naker, itself a European adaptation of the Middle Eastern naqqāra, brought to Europe by returning crusaders. This cultural transfer represents one of the most clear examples of how the Crusades influenced European musical development.

Construction and Materials: Typically, nakers were strapped to the performer's waist or shoulders, or played on the ground, featuring bowls crafted from materials such as copper, wood, or earthenware, and drumheads fashioned from calf, goat, or donkey hides. The choice of materials often reflected local availability and economic status, with copper bowls indicating higher-status contexts.

Performance Context: Typically played in pairs, the kettle drum is often associated with trumpets, a pairing that underscores their shared roles in signaling and processional functions. This connection persisted well into the Renaissance and beyond, as evidenced in Shakespeare's Hamlet (1600), where he observes:

"The king doth wake tonight and takes his rouse,
Keeps wassail and the swaggering upspring reels,
And, as he drains his draughts of Rhenish down,
The kettle-drum and trumpet thus bray out
The triumph of his pledge."

Iconographic Evidence

The visual record of nakers provides some of the most compelling evidence for medieval percussion practice. Christian iconography features the kettle drum prominently, as seen in The Temptation of Saint Anthony, attributed to Pieter Huys. More specifically medieval are the predecessors of the kettle drum, known as nakers, depicted in 14th-century stained glass at Rouen Cathedral in Normandy.

Manuscript Sources: Additional representations of nakers appear in illuminated manuscripts, including:

  • Paris, BnF, NAL 3145, f. 53r

  • Chambéry, BM, 004. f. 367v

  • With snare: Chantilly, Musée Condé, ms. fr. 65, f. 26r

  • With snare: 14th century misericord, Worcester Cathedral

Unique Depictions: A particularly unique portrayal of nakers is found in Paris, BnF, Français 184, f. 5. This 15th-century manuscript presents nakers in a serene setting, alongside a range of instruments, including strings, winds, a triangle, and a tambour à cordes. This peaceful context contrasts with the more common martial associations of the instrument.

Evolutionary Evidence: An intriguing transitional depiction is found in the 14th-century manuscript MS Bodl. 264, f. 113r. Here, nakers appear alongside a larger drum and a timbrel atop castle battlements, suggesting an evolutionary stage wherein the addition of snares and larger sizes bridged the gap between nakers and modern timpani.

Artistic Representations

Visual representations of the kettle drum appear in significant artistic works of the period. Hans Holbein the Younger (1497/98–1543) included depictions of the instrument in his Dance of Death series (1523–1525). Similarly, Persian illustrations from the Shahnama (ca. 1525–30), such as "Zal Slays Khazarvan," portray drums mounted on horses and camels alongside trumpets, demonstrating the international character of this instrument family.

The Tambour: The Ubiquitous Cylindrical Drum

Characteristics and Construction

The tambour, an elongated cylindrical drum, represents perhaps the most common percussion instrument of the medieval period. This double-headed drum featured a single snare running across the batter head and was typically cord-tensioned, allowing for pitch adjustment during performance.

Design Features:

  • Cylindrical, double-headed construction

  • Cord-tensioned system for pitch control

  • Single snare across batter head

  • No definite standard form, suggesting regional variations

  • Played with a single stick

The tambour's ubiquity in medieval sources suggests it was the percussion instrument most readily available and widely understood across different social strata.

Historical Documentation

Economic Records: An entry in the Privy Purse expenses of Henry VII dated 1492, relates to "2 Sweches grete receiving the sum of £2." This financial record provides concrete evidence of the economic value placed on skilled percussionists and suggests the employment of foreign specialists.

Swiss Connection: The importation of Swiss players is no surprise as the association of drum and fife is recorded in the Chronicles of the City of Basle for 1332. This connection between Swiss musicians and percussion excellence would continue for centuries, establishing Switzerland as a center for military drumming traditions.

Performance Practice and Technique

The tambour was particularly associated with martial and ceremonial contexts. Its loud, penetrating sound made it ideal for outdoor processions and military formations. The single-stick playing technique, while limiting in terms of complexity, was well-suited to the rhythmic demands of marching and ceremonial timing.

Particularly notable is the association of drums with the pipe and trumpet, emphasising their loud, martial, and ceremonial applications. The literature, however, provides scant information regarding frame drums specifically, offering little insight into their precise functions despite their frequent depiction in medieval iconography.

Frame Drums: The Ancient Tradition Continues

Etymology and Cultural Origins

Frame drums represent one of the most ancient and widespread categories of percussion instruments, with a continuous tradition extending from prehistoric times through the medieval period and into the present day.

Arabic Foundations: As early as the 6th century, the Arabic term al-duff (phonetically adufe) was used to denote a frame drum, regardless of its size, whether it featured jingles or not, and whether it was circular or square. This terminology provides the foundational starting point for understanding the frame drum within the broader Mediterranean context, encompassing its peoples, music, and cultural significance.

Linguistic Diversity: The terms daff, deff, doff, and duff in Arabic refer to various types of tambourines used by nomadic tribes across the Sahara. These instruments may vary in size and may or may not feature jingles. One such instrument is the bendhir, which includes gut strings pressed against the drumhead that vibrate upon being struck, resembling the mechanisms found in modern drum kits.

Ancient Terminology: Other names for instruments within the frame drum family, such as bendhir, bandir, pandair, pandero, meze, and timpanum, are important for understanding the origins of both the tambourine and the adufe. The term pan, likely of Sumerian origin, means "skin," which aligns with the theory that the name derives from the material used in constructing the instrument.

Prehistoric Connections: In fact, Sumerian terms such as alal, balag, and adapa (dating from 4000 to 5000 BCE) also appear in connection with this family of instruments. Terms like meze and mizhar have existed for approximately 4000 years and were used in ancient texts to describe tambourines used in ceremonial and ritual contexts, a use that continues today in Egypt.

Global Terminology: Other related terms, such as dayareh, dayira, daire, dareh, dahare, tur (Polish), atari (Swahili), and tar (Persian), further enrich the understanding of the instrument's widespread historical use.

Cultural Transmission and Medieval Development

Persian Influence in Iberia: In the 8th century, many Persian musicians arrived in the Iberian Peninsula through the Abbasids and the Umayyads, performing in cities such as Córdoba and Seville. As a result, many names of instruments and musical terms still used in North Africa today have Persian rather than Arabic origins. This cultural exchange further influenced the evolution of the adufe and other musical instruments in the region.

Literary Evidence: In literary sources, references to the adufe appear as early as the 13th century in the Cantiga de Amigo by Martín de Ginzo, a minstrel in the court of Alfonso X, highlighting the instrument's cultural importance during this period.

Regional Variations: The adufe, as it is known today in the Iberian Peninsula, has clear counterparts in North Africa, where similar instruments are referred to as deff or doff. In Arabic, the addition of the definite article al to the word duf results in al-duff, signifying the particular frame drum within the context of Arabic musical traditions.

Round Frame Drums

The Timbrel

Round frame drums, known as timbrels, were among the most common percussion instruments in medieval Europe. These instruments typically featured a simple wooden frame with a single drumhead, though some variants included double heads.

Archaeological Evidence: The Metropolitan Museum of Art houses a significant example: a "Seated tambourine player" from 12th century Iran, crafted in stucco and painted, measuring H. 4 3/4 in. (12.1 cm) W. 2 1/2 in. (6.4 cm). This piece (Object Number: 29.28) demonstrates the widespread nature of frame drum traditions across the medieval world.

The Tambourine

The tambourine represents a specialized development of the frame drum tradition, distinguished by its inclusion of metal jingles.

Construction Features: Tambourines featured holes in the frame that allowed metal disks (jingles) to be placed and moved freely. These tambourines were often held in the more conventional "Western" way we know today, which differed significantly from the holding techniques used for plain frame drums.

Iconographic Evidence: Important visual evidence includes:

  • Early 14th century add. 42130, fol. 164

  • 14th century Paris, BnF, Français 60 f.141

  • Bodleian Library, MS Bodl. 264, f. 120v

These sources show tambourines in various performance contexts, from courtly entertainment to religious celebrations.

Square Frame Drums

Square frame drums represent one of the most distinctive and culturally significant percussion instruments of the medieval period, with particular importance in the Iberian Peninsula and broader Mediterranean region.

Historical Development and Cultural Context

Ancient Origins: Square frame drums have a long history that predates the Middle Ages, with early depictions, such as those found in the tomb of Rekhmire (1500 BCE) in Egypt, indicating their presence in North Africa. This ancient pedigree suggests a continuous tradition spanning millennia.

Moorish Introduction: It is likely that these instruments were introduced to the Iberian Peninsula during the 8th century with the Moorish invasion, which brought the Moors (originating from Mauretania, in northwest Africa) to the region. This cultural transmission represents one of the most significant influences on Iberian musical culture.

Post-Reconquest Continuity: Following Portugal's liberation from Arab rule in 1139 and the subsequent establishment of an independent kingdom in 1143, the square frame drum continued to be used. The wealth of iconographic evidence suggests that the instrument was more widespread and culturally significant in the Iberian Peninsula and beyond during the medieval period than it is in contemporary times.

Construction and Materials

Traditional Construction Methods: Square frame drums from this era were typically constructed from locally available materials, such as pine for the wooden frame, and skins from animals like goats, sheep, or lambs for the drumheads. This use of local materials resulted in regional variations in tone and appearance.

The Tavira Vase: The early 12th-century Tavira Vase is one of the earliest surviving representations of this instrument in the Iberian Peninsula, providing crucial evidence for the instrument's early presence and cultural significance.

Iconographic Evidence and Medieval Representations

European Expansion: By the mid-13th century, square frame drums had become more commonly depicted in European iconography. Notable examples include representations from:

  • Barruelo de los Carabeos

  • Igreja de Santa Maria de Yermos

  • The Maciejowski Bible (Paris, MS M.638, fol. 39r)

  • Four windows in Troyes, Grand Est, France

These images represent some of the earliest European depictions of the square frame drum outside the Iberian Peninsula.

Technical Developments: A significant representation from around 1300, in the W.102 manuscript (78v), shows the square frame drum being played with a beater. While it remains uncertain whether objects such as jingles, bells, or snares were placed inside the drum to create additional sonic effects, it is known that square, double-headed instruments generally produce a sound with a less defined pitch and a quicker decay when compared to round unimembranophones.

Double-Headed Construction: Notably, the explicit depiction of two skins closing the structure of the drum does not appear until the 13th century in the Pierpont Morgan Library Old Testament. Moreover, the stitching that joins the two skins is also clearly visible in Michael Praetorius's Syntagma Musicum (1619), demonstrating the continuity of construction techniques.

Regional Variants and Cultural Significance

The Portuguese Adufe: In the case of the adufe, a traditional Portuguese square frame drum, there are instances where bordões—snares inside the instrument—are found, further enhancing its percussive sound. Over time, the square frame drum evolved in both construction and playing techniques, influenced by the distinct musical traditions of different regions.

Today, the adufe from Portugal is perhaps the most renowned variant of the square frame drum, particularly in relation to religious festivals in the Beira Baixa region. The adufe is also notable for its association with women: in many traditional settings, women are responsible not only for the creation and decoration of the instrument but also for its performance.

Gender and Cultural Identity: This association with the feminine is prominently highlighted during festivals and community celebrations, as depicted in historical manuscripts such as the Biblia de Pamplona (1197). This gendered aspect of frame drum performance represents an important dimension of medieval musical culture that has persisted into modern times.

Regional Terminology: Similar instruments are found in Northeast Portugal, such as the pandeiro mirandês, and in Spain/Galicia, where the square frame drum is known as the pandeiro quadrado.

In Spain and Galicia, the term "pandeiro" (masculine) refers to the square frame drum and is derived from the Persian-Arabic bendayer (or ben-dair), which denotes a type of frame drum. In these regions, the adufe is also referred to as pandeiro quadrado.

Modern Survival and Performance Practice

Contemporary Traditions: In the town of Peñaparda, Salamanca, the square frame drum is considered the central instrument of traditional music and the focal point of local festivities. The playing technique in this region is unique: the instrument is held perpendicular to the player's body, supported on the knee, and struck with a mace or club in the right hand, while the left hand, using the big toe to hold a band, strikes it with the palm in a distinctive rhythmic pattern known as backsets. This technique is also found in Morocco, demonstrating the persistence of cross-cultural connections.

Gender Dynamics: Traditionally, the square frame drum was predominantly used by women to accompany singing, but in modern times, the instrument has gained popularity in folk music ensembles across Spain, particularly due to the efforts of musicians such as Eliseo Parra.

While the adufe continues to be seen as a female instrument in certain regions of Spain, including Astorga, León, Asturias, and Ourense (Galicia), it is also played by men, particularly in performances alongside other instruments such as bagpipes, drums, tambourines, and shells.

Global Diaspora: In Brazil, the square frame drum appears in the Folias do Espírito Santo, Pastorais, and Ranchos dos Reis, as well as other festive contexts, particularly in São Paulo. Brazilian scholars suggest that the instrument may have African origins, brought to Brazil by the Portuguese, demonstrating the complex cultural pathways through which medieval instruments traveled and evolved.

Later Historical References: After the 15th century, representations of the square frame drum became significantly rarer in European art. However, the instrument reappears in Michael Praetorius's Syntagma Musicum (1619), where it is referred to as "Mostowitesihe Trumreln oder Paucken," indicating continued awareness and use of the instrument into the Renaissance period.

Specialized Instruments and Innovations

The Tambour à Cordes

The tambour à cordes represents one of the most innovative percussion instruments of the medieval period, combining percussive and string elements in a unique hybrid design. This instrument bridges the gap between percussion and string families, representing the experimental nature of medieval instrument development.

While specific details about its construction and playing technique remain limited in the surviving sources, the tambour à cordes likely featured strings that were either struck directly or that resonated sympathetically with percussive strikes on a drumhead. This design anticipates later developments in percussion instruments that would incorporate sympathetic strings for enhanced resonance and tonal complexity.

Performance Practice and Playing Techniques

Methodological Challenges

The reconstruction of medieval percussion performance practice presents unique challenges. Playing styles and techniques remain largely hypothetical, as the notation systems of the period rarely specified percussive parts in detail. However, iconography can provide important clues about stick holds, hand positions, and playing postures.

Rhythmic Context and Function

A marked and regular rhythm in medieval music appears to have derived from at least three main sources not necessarily connected with instrumental performance:

  1. Textual Influence: The presence of a definitely metrical text

  2. Theoretical Prescription: The presence of an arbitrary prescription for the arrangement of note-values according to a simple and obvious recurrent scheme (as in the rhythmic modes evolved by the theorists of the 13th century and supposedly analogous to the meters of classical prosody)

  3. Dance: The most important source of regular and strongly marked rhythm in music

The Dance Connection

The relationship between percussion and dance represents one of the most fundamental aspects of medieval musical practice. In the history of the dance, the rhythmic reinforcement seems to have come at first not from instruments but from purely vocal noises (imitation of animal sounds), then from parts of the human body alone (clapping of hands) to which instruments (at first purely percussive ones) were eventually added.

The earliest melodic accompaniment of the dance appears to have been always sung, and a melodic instrumental accompaniment comes quite late, with instrumental dance melody developing, not from instrumental rhythmic music, but from the "instrumentalizing" of dance songs, for which the words have been abandoned.

This evolutionary process suggests that strong and regular rhythm was not inherent in instrumental music as such, but was inherent in dance music, and had its source in the vocal rather than in the instrumental medium. That dance rhythm is found more often in later artistic instrumental music than in vocal music—and hence is more commonly associated with "instrumental style"—is accounted for by the fact that, in the course of time, the more complicated social dances branched off from the simple folksong-dances and became stylized.

Theoretical Framework and Mensuration

The foundation of nearly all fifteenth-century writings on mensuration was the fourteenth-century Ars practica mensurabilis cantus, known as Libellus cantus mensurabilis in modern scholarly literature, attributed to Johannes de Muris (c. 1290–after 1344).

Temporal Measurement: In order to translate the abstract values of mensural notation into actual time values in performance, one of the notes must be equated with a unit of real time and used as a standard of measure for the others. The most common terms for that value were "mensura" in the fifteenth century and "tactus" in the sixteenth century.

"Mensura" is a more general term than "tactus." It sometimes has other meanings in the fifteenth century, and it often means "mensuration" (the perfect or imperfect quality of the notes), rather than "tactus," in the sixteenth century.

Arabic Theoretical Influence

A useful concept in Arabic musical theory, deriving from the writings of al-Fārābī, is the distinction between (simple) cycle and compound cycle or period. A rhythmic cycle (dawr) is a short repeatable scheme, normally ending with a rest or protraction.

This theoretical framework may have influenced European rhythmic thinking through cultural contact in Iberia and the Mediterranean, providing additional context for understanding how medieval percussionists approached rhythmic organization and performance.

Technical Considerations: Tuning and Construction

Diameter and Tension Control

In frame drum construction, diameter controls the tuning, and the tension of the skin affects both pitch and tonal quality. Medieval instrument makers would have understood these relationships empirically, developing techniques for achieving desired sounds through careful attention to materials and construction methods.

The choice of wood for frames and animal skin for heads would have been guided by both practical considerations (availability, cost) and acoustic preferences developed through centuries of tradition and experimentation.

Regional Variations and Materials

The use of local materials inevitably led to regional variations in sound and appearance. Pine wood frames in northern Europe would have produced different tonal characteristics than olive wood frames in the Mediterranean, while the choice between goat, sheep, lamb, or other animal skins for drumheads would have further contributed to regional sound characteristics.

Cultural and Social Dimensions

Gender and Performance

The medieval period shows interesting patterns in the gendered associations of percussion instruments. While cylindrical drums and nakers were often associated with male performers in military and courtly contexts, frame drums, particularly square variants, show strong associations with female performers.

This gender division reflects broader medieval social patterns and has persisted in many traditional cultures to the present day. Women were often responsible not only for performance but also for the construction and decoration of frame drums, creating a complete female-centered tradition around these instruments.

Social Hierarchy and Context

Medieval percussion served different functions across social hierarchies:

Courtly and Noble Contexts:

  • Nakers and kettle drums for ceremonial occasions

  • Sophisticated ensemble playing with trumpets and other instruments

  • Professional musicians employed for specific expertise

Popular and Folk Traditions:

  • Frame drums for dance accompaniment

  • Community celebrations and religious festivals

  • Amateur and semi-professional performance

Religious and Ceremonial Uses:

  • Processions and liturgical celebrations

  • Pilgrimage accompaniment

  • Monastic and cathedral contexts

Economic Dimensions

The economic records that survive, such as Henry VII's payments to Swiss drummers, indicate that skilled percussionists commanded significant fees and that importing foreign specialists was considered worthwhile. This suggests a sophisticated market for percussion expertise and recognition of technical skill levels.

Regional Traditions and Cultural Exchange

The Iberian Peninsula as Cultural Crossroads

The Iberian Peninsula during the medieval period represents perhaps the most significant example of cultural fusion in European percussion history. The interaction between Christian, Islamic, and Jewish communities created a unique musical environment where instruments and techniques were freely exchanged and adapted.

Mozarabic Influences: Christian communities under Islamic rule (Mozarabs) likely played a crucial role in transmitting Islamic musical practices, including percussion techniques, into Christian European contexts.

Mudéjar Contributions: Islamic communities under Christian rule (Mudéjars) continued to practice their musical traditions, contributing to the hybrid musical culture that characterized medieval Iberia.

The Crusades and Cultural Transmission

The Crusades, while primarily military campaigns, also served as major conduits for cultural exchange. The introduction of the naker to Europe through returning crusaders represents just one example of how military contact facilitated musical transmission.

European knights and soldiers would have encountered not only new instruments but also new performance techniques, rhythmic concepts, and ensemble practices that they brought back to their home territories.

Trade Routes and Musical Exchange

Medieval trade routes, particularly those connecting Europe with the Middle East and North Africa, facilitated the exchange of not only goods but also musical instruments and knowledge. Merchants, diplomats, and travelers all contributed to this cultural exchange.

The presence of Persian musicians in 8th-century Córdoba and Seville exemplifies how trade relationships could lead to sustained cultural transmission, with lasting impacts on local musical traditions.

The Decline and Transformation of Medieval Percussion

Changing Musical Aesthetics

The transition from medieval to Renaissance musical aesthetics brought significant changes to percussion practice. The Renaissance emphasis on polyphonic complexity and harmonic sophistication somewhat marginalized percussion instruments, which were seen as less capable of contributing to the new musical ideals.

Survival in Folk Traditions

While art music moved away from the prominent use of percussion instruments, many medieval percussion traditions survived in folk and popular contexts. The continued use of the adufe in Portuguese religious festivals and the persistence of frame drum traditions across the Mediterranean demonstrate this survival.

Renaissance Documentation and Revival

The Renaissance treatises that provide much of our knowledge about medieval percussion also represent a conscious effort to document and preserve these traditions. Writers like Praetorius were aware that they were describing practices that were becoming less common in art music contexts.

Modern Implications and Contemporary Relevance

Historical Performance Practice

The revival of interest in medieval music during the 20th and 21st centuries has led to serious attempts to reconstruct medieval percussion practice. Musicians and scholars have drawn on iconographic evidence, surviving related traditions, and careful analysis of the historical sources to create informed performances of medieval music.

Cultural Continuity

The persistence of instruments like the adufe, pandeiro, and other frame drums in traditional contexts provides living laboratories for understanding medieval practice. The techniques used by contemporary traditional players often preserve ancient methods, offering insights into historical performance practice.

Anthropological Perspectives

Modern ethnomusicological study of traditional percussion practices around the Mediterranean and beyond has provided valuable comparative data for understanding medieval practices. The similarities between widely dispersed traditions suggest common historical roots and patterns of cultural transmission.

Conclusion: The Medieval Percussion Legacy

The study of medieval percussion instruments reveals a rich and diverse tradition that was integral to the musical, social, and spiritual life of the Middle Ages. Despite the challenges posed by limited surviving physical evidence and sparse written documentation, the convergence of multiple source types—Renaissance treatises, iconographic evidence, linguistic analysis, and comparative studies of surviving traditions—provides a compelling picture of medieval percussion practice.

Methodological Insights: This study demonstrates the value of interdisciplinary approaches to medieval music history. No single source type could provide a complete picture, but the synthesis of diverse evidence creates a robust understanding of medieval percussion traditions.

Cultural Significance: Medieval percussion was far from being merely utilitarian or primitive. These instruments played sophisticated roles in complex cultural systems, contributing to religious ritual, social celebration, military communication, and artistic expression.

Historical Continuity: The persistence of many medieval percussion traditions into the modern era provides unique opportunities for historical understanding. Unlike many other aspects of medieval culture that have been completely transformed or lost, percussion traditions offer direct links to medieval practice.

Gender and Social Dimensions: The study reveals complex patterns of gender association and social function that challenge simple generalizations about medieval musical culture. The female-centered traditions surrounding frame drums, in particular, highlight the importance of gender analysis in medieval music studies.

Technical Innovation: Medieval percussion represents a period of significant technical innovation and cultural synthesis. Instruments like the tambour à cordes demonstrate experimental approaches to instrument design, while the adaptation of Middle Eastern instruments like the naqqāra into European nakers shows creative cultural adaptation.

Rhythmic Foundations: The medieval period established rhythmic practices and concepts that would influence European music for centuries. The development of mensural notation, the codification of rhythmic modes, and the establishment of tactus concepts all have their roots in medieval practice.

Regional Diversity: The study reveals significant regional variations in medieval percussion practice, reflecting the diverse cultural landscape of medieval Europe and the Mediterranean world. These variations demonstrate the importance of local traditions and cultural adaptation.

Future Research Directions: Several areas warrant continued investigation. Archaeological discoveries of medieval sites may yet yield percussion instrument fragments or related materials. Deeper analysis of iconographic sources using digital humanities methods could reveal new insights into performance practice. Comparative ethnomusicological studies of traditional percussion practices in formerly medieval territories could provide additional reconstructive evidence.

The systematic study of medieval percussion also suggests methodological approaches applicable to other under-documented aspects of medieval musical culture. The synthesis of visual, textual, linguistic, and comparative evidence demonstrates how comprehensive understanding can emerge even from fragmentary sources.

The Soundscape of Medieval Life

Medieval percussion instruments were not merely musical accessories but integral components of the medieval soundscape. They marked time in daily life, announced important events, accompanied religious ceremonies, and provided the rhythmic foundation for social gatherings. The sounds of tabors, nakers, and frame drums would have been as familiar to medieval ears as the sounds of bells, voices, and the natural environment.

Temporal Marking: Percussion instruments served crucial temporal functions in medieval society. They marked the progression of ceremonies, coordinated group activities, and provided the rhythmic frameworks within which other musical and social activities took place. This temporal function connected percussion to the broader medieval understanding of time as both linear (historical) and cyclical (liturgical).

Spatial Definition: The loud, penetrating sounds of medieval percussion instruments also served to define and organize space. Military drums could communicate across battlefields, ceremonial percussion could fill cathedral spaces, and dance drums could organize community gatherings. These instruments helped create and maintain the acoustic environments within which medieval social life took place.

Social Cohesion: Perhaps most importantly, percussion instruments facilitated social cohesion through their role in collective activities. Dance, ceremony, and celebration all depended on the coordinating function of rhythmic accompaniment. The shared experience of rhythmic entrainment created bonds of community and collective identity that were essential to medieval social organization.

Technological and Acoustic Considerations

Material Science: Medieval percussion instrument construction represents sophisticated understanding of acoustic principles, even if this understanding was empirical rather than theoretical. The selection of woods, the preparation of animal skins, the design of resonating chambers, and the incorporation of sympathetic elements (like the strings in tambour à cordes) all demonstrate advanced technical knowledge.

Acoustic Properties: Different percussion instruments fulfilled different acoustic niches within medieval musical practice. The sharp attack and quick decay of small frame drums suited dance accompaniment, while the sustained resonance of larger kettle drums served ceremonial functions. The metallic shimmer of jingles added textural complexity to ensemble playing.

Volume and Projection: Medieval performance contexts often required instruments capable of significant volume and projection. Outdoor ceremonies, large indoor spaces, and the need to coordinate large groups of people all demanded instruments with substantial acoustic power. The association of percussion with trumpets and other loud instruments reflects these practical acoustic requirements.

Symbolic and Spiritual Dimensions

Religious Symbolism: Percussion instruments carried significant symbolic weight in medieval religious contexts. Frame drums, with their circular form, could represent cosmic wholeness and divine perfection. The rhythmic pulse of drums could symbolize the heartbeat of creation or the temporal nature of earthly existence contrasted with divine eternity.

Liturgical Functions: While not extensively documented in surviving liturgical sources, percussion instruments likely played important roles in medieval religious practice. Processional music, paraliturgical celebrations, and popular religious observances all would have incorporated percussive elements.

Apotropaic Functions: Like many traditional cultures, medieval European societies likely attributed protective and purifying powers to percussion instruments. The loud sounds and rhythmic patterns of drums could serve to ward off evil influences, mark sacred boundaries, and facilitate spiritual transformation.

Economic and Social Networks

Craft Specialization: The construction of percussion instruments supported networks of specialized craftsmen. Frame makers, skin preparers, metalworkers (for jingles and hardware), and decorators all contributed to instrument production. This specialization created economic opportunities and supported the development of technical expertise.

Trade Relationships: The materials required for percussion instruments—exotic woods, specific animal skins, metals for jingles—created trade relationships that connected local communities to broader commercial networks. The quality and decoration of instruments also served as markers of social status and economic success.

Professional Musicians: The employment of professional percussionists, evidenced by payment records like those of Henry VII, indicates the existence of career paths and professional identities centered on percussion performance. These musicians likely traveled between courts, participated in major ceremonies, and transmitted technical knowledge across regions.

Literary and Poetic Traditions

Metaphorical Uses: Medieval literature frequently employed percussion instruments as metaphors for various aspects of human experience. The rhythm of drums could represent the passage of time, the heartbeat of life, or the call to action. These metaphorical uses demonstrate the deep cultural significance of percussion beyond purely musical contexts.

Narrative Functions: In medieval narratives, percussion instruments often served important plot functions—announcing arrivals, marking celebrations, or creating atmospheric effects. The specific choice of percussion instruments in literary contexts provides insights into their cultural associations and symbolic meanings.

Poetic Meter: The relationship between percussion rhythms and poetic meter represents an important area of medieval cultural synthesis. The rhythmic modes developed by medieval theorists drew explicit parallels between musical and poetic rhythm, with percussion providing the temporal framework for both.

Comparative Cultural Analysis

Islamic Parallels: The extensive documentation of percussion instruments in medieval Islamic sources provides important comparative context for understanding European practices. Islamic treatises on music often include detailed discussions of rhythmic modes, percussion techniques, and the cultural functions of rhythmic music.

Byzantine Influences: The Byzantine Empire maintained extensive percussion traditions throughout the medieval period, and these traditions influenced both Islamic and Western European practices. The analysis of Byzantine iconographic sources reveals percussion practices that bridge Eastern and Western medieval traditions.

Jewish Communities: Jewish communities throughout medieval Europe and the Mediterranean maintained distinctive percussion traditions, particularly in religious contexts. The frame drums used in Jewish celebrations show both continuity with ancient Middle Eastern practices and adaptation to local European conditions.

Pedagogical Traditions

Learning Methods: While formal treatises on percussion performance are rare, the consistent appearance of specific techniques in iconographic sources suggests established pedagogical traditions. Master-apprentice relationships likely transmitted technical knowledge, rhythmic patterns, and performance practices across generations.

Regional Schools: The documented import of Swiss drummers suggests the existence of regional schools or traditions with distinctive technical characteristics. These regional specializations likely reflected different approaches to instrument construction, performance technique, and musical style.

Gender-Based Transmission: The female-centered traditions surrounding frame drums likely involved distinctive methods of knowledge transmission. Women may have passed down not only performance techniques but also instrument construction methods, decorative traditions, and repertoires of rhythmic patterns.

Archaeological Perspectives

Site Evidence: While complete instruments rarely survive, archaeological excavations of medieval sites have yielded fragments of percussion instruments—pieces of wooden frames, metal jingles, and hardware elements. These fragments provide material confirmation of the instruments described in textual and iconographic sources.

Contextual Information: Archaeological context provides crucial information about the social and cultural settings in which percussion instruments were used. The association of percussion instrument fragments with specific types of sites—religious, military, domestic—illuminates their various cultural functions.

Construction Techniques: Archaeological evidence also provides insights into construction techniques that may not be visible in iconographic sources. Joint construction, wood selection, and hardware attachment methods can all be analyzed through careful examination of surviving fragments.

Musical Notation and Theoretical Integration

Notational Challenges: The limited representation of percussion in medieval musical notation reflects both practical and theoretical challenges. Medieval notation systems were designed primarily for pitched instruments and voices, making it difficult to represent the complex rhythmic patterns and timbral variations of percussion instruments.

Theoretical Status: Medieval music theory, focused primarily on pitch relationships and modal structures, had limited frameworks for discussing percussion instruments. This theoretical marginalization may have contributed to the relative lack of written documentation for percussion practices.

Practical Integration: Despite notational and theoretical limitations, percussion instruments were clearly integrated into medieval musical practice. The evidence of iconographic sources and literary references demonstrates that percussion was considered an essential component of many types of musical performance.

Technological Innovation and Development

Hybrid Instruments: Instruments like the tambour à cordes represent medieval experimentation with hybrid designs that combined percussive and other musical elements. These innovations demonstrate creative approaches to expanding the sonic possibilities of percussion instruments.

Mechanical Developments: The development of tensioning systems for drum heads, the standardization of jingle attachment methods, and the evolution of beater designs all represent significant technological advances in medieval percussion instrument construction.

Size and Scale Variations: The medieval period saw experimentation with instruments of various sizes and scales, from small handheld frame drums to large ceremonial kettle drums. This size variation created families of related instruments with different acoustic properties and cultural functions.

Global Context and Cultural Exchange

Silk Road Influences: The medieval Silk Road facilitated the exchange of musical instruments and techniques between Europe, Asia, and the Middle East. Percussion instruments, being relatively portable and universally understood, were particularly likely to be transmitted through these trade networks.

Crusade Impacts: Beyond the specific introduction of instruments like the naker, the Crusades facilitated broader cultural exchange that influenced European percussion traditions. European musicians encountered not only new instruments but also new performance techniques, ensemble practices, and theoretical concepts.

Pilgrimage Routes: Medieval pilgrimage routes served as conduits for cultural exchange, including musical transmission. Pilgrims carrying instruments, musicians serving pilgrimage sites, and the international character of major pilgrimage destinations all contributed to the spread of percussion traditions.

Modern Revival and Reconstruction

Historical Performance Movement: The modern historical performance movement has made significant contributions to the understanding of medieval percussion. Through careful analysis of historical sources and experimental reconstruction of instruments and techniques, performers have created new possibilities for experiencing medieval percussion.

Ethnomusicological Contributions: Modern ethnomusicological studies of traditional percussion practices have provided valuable comparative data for understanding medieval practices. The documentation of traditional techniques in cultures with historical connections to medieval Europe has illuminated possible historical practices.

Digital Reconstruction: Modern digital technologies have enabled new approaches to reconstructing medieval percussion. Computer modeling of acoustic properties, digital analysis of iconographic sources, and virtual reconstruction of performance spaces all contribute to enhanced understanding of medieval percussion practice.

Interdisciplinary Methodologies

Art Historical Analysis: Sophisticated art historical analysis of medieval iconographic sources has revealed previously unnoticed details about percussion instruments and their use. Digital imaging techniques, stylistic analysis, and iconographic interpretation all contribute to this enhanced understanding.

Linguistic Archaeology: The careful analysis of medieval terminology for percussion instruments, drawing on comparative linguistics and etymological research, has provided insights into cultural connections and historical development that are not available through other methods.

Anthropological Frameworks: Modern anthropological understanding of music's social functions has provided interpretive frameworks for understanding the cultural roles of medieval percussion. Concepts of musical meaning, social identity, and cultural transmission all inform contemporary analysis of medieval percussion traditions.

Final Reflections: The Enduring Legacy of Medieval Percussion

The study of medieval percussion instruments ultimately reveals the sophisticated and multifaceted nature of medieval musical culture. Far from being simple or primitive, medieval percussion traditions demonstrate complex technical knowledge, rich cultural meaning, and extensive international connections. These instruments served not merely as musical accompaniments but as essential elements of medieval social, religious, and cultural life.

The methodological approaches developed for studying medieval percussion, combining iconographic, textual, linguistic, archaeological, and comparative evidence, demonstrate the possibilities for comprehensive understanding of under-documented historical practices. These methods have implications not only for medieval music studies but for the broader field of historical musicology.

The persistence of many medieval percussion traditions into the modern era provides unique opportunities for historical understanding that are not available for most other aspects of medieval culture. The living traditions of frame drum performance in the Mediterranean, the continued use of instruments like the adufe in Portuguese festivals, and the survival of construction techniques and performance practices all offer direct links to medieval musical culture.

Perhaps most significantly, the study of medieval percussion reveals the universal human impulse toward rhythmic expression and the fundamental role of rhythm in creating and maintaining social cohesion. The drums, frame drums, and other percussion instruments of the medieval period were not merely musical tools but essential technologies for creating and sustaining human community.

In our contemporary world, where electronic and digital technologies have transformed musical practice, the study of medieval percussion reminds us of the enduring power of simple acoustic instruments to create meaning, facilitate community, and express the deepest human impulses toward rhythmic and musical expression. The medieval percussion tradition, documented through this synthesis of diverse sources, stands as testament to the ingenuity, creativity, and cultural sophistication of medieval musical practitioners and the communities they served.

The sounds of medieval percussion—the sharp crack of a tabor, the metallic shimmer of tambourine jingles, the deep resonance of nakers, the subtle whisper of frame drum techniques—these sounds once filled the air of medieval Europe and the Mediterranean world, creating the rhythmic foundation for countless moments of celebration, ceremony, and community. Through careful study and thoughtful reconstruction, we can once again hear echoes of these sounds and, in hearing them, gain new appreciation for the rich musical heritage of the medieval world.

Bibliography

This bibliography encompasses the diverse sources essential for understanding medieval percussion instruments. The interdisciplinary nature of this research requires drawing from musicological, archaeological, art historical, linguistic, and ethnomusicological sources, reflecting the complex cultural networks that shaped medieval percussion traditions.

Primary Sources

The primary sources for medieval percussion studies present unique challenges, as virtually no written music for percussion survives from the medieval period proper, and no complete physical instruments exist from before 1600. However, several categories of primary sources provide crucial evidence for reconstruction and understanding.

Medieval and Renaissance Musical Treatises

These treatises, while primarily Renaissance in origin, frequently reference medieval traditions and provide the most detailed technical information available about percussion instruments and their construction.

Agricola, Martin.Musica instrumentalis deudsch. Wittemberg: Georg Rhau, 1529. This German treatise provides detailed descriptions of instruments common in Germanic regions, including several percussion types that clearly derive from medieval precedents. Agricola's work is particularly valuable for understanding the transition from medieval to Renaissance percussion practice.

Arbeau, Thoinot.Orchésographie. Langres: Jehan des Preyz, 1589. One of the most important sources for Renaissance dance and the percussion instruments that accompanied it. Arbeau's detailed choreographic notations include some of the few specific written parts for percussion instruments from the period, making this source invaluable for understanding rhythmic practices that likely derive from medieval traditions.

Mersenne, Marin.Harmonie universelle. Paris: Sébastien Cramoisy, 1636. Though later than the medieval period, Mersenne's comprehensive treatment of musical instruments includes detailed discussions of percussion instruments and their acoustic properties. His scientific approach provides insights into construction techniques that may have medieval origins.

Muris, Johannes de.Ars practica mensurabilis cantus (Libellus cantus mensurabilis). c. 1290–after 1344. This foundational text of medieval music theory establishes the theoretical framework for understanding rhythm and mensuration that underlies all medieval percussion practice. While not specifically about percussion, the rhythmic concepts developed here are essential for understanding how percussion instruments functioned within medieval musical systems.

Praetorius, Michael.Syntagma Musicum. 3 vols. Wittenberg and Wolfenbüttel: Elias Holwein, 1614-1620. English translation by David Z. Crookes as Syntagma Musicum II: De Organographia. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986. Perhaps the most comprehensive source for understanding Renaissance instruments with medieval antecedents. Praetorius's detailed illustrations and descriptions of percussion instruments, including the square frame drums he terms "Mostowitesihe Trumreln oder Paucken," provide crucial visual and technical evidence.

Virdung, Sebastian.Musica getutscht. Basel: Michael Furter, 1511. One of the earliest printed works on musical instruments, Virdung's treatise includes important information about percussion instruments in use at the beginning of the 16th century, many of which clearly have medieval origins. The work's early date makes it particularly valuable for understanding late medieval practice.

Medieval Literary Sources

Medieval literature provides crucial contextual evidence for the social and cultural functions of percussion instruments, often preserving information about performance practice that is not available from other sources.

Adam de la Halle.Le Jeu de Robin et de Marion. Late 13th century. This theatrical work provides one of the most vivid literary descriptions of medieval instrumental ensembles, including specific references to percussion instruments ("Sonent timbre, sonent tabor"). The work's detailed attention to musical performance makes it a valuable source for understanding the role of percussion in medieval entertainment.

Anonymous.Cantiga de Amigo by Martín de Ginzo. 13th century. These Galician-Portuguese lyric poems include some of the earliest literary references to the adufe, demonstrating the cultural significance of frame drums in Iberian medieval culture. The poems' context in courtly entertainment suggests the high status of these instruments.

Anonymous.King Richard Coeur de Lion. 14th century. This Middle English romance provides important evidence for the use of percussion instruments in royal and noble contexts, specifically mentioning tabors alongside pipes and trumpets in ceremonial settings.

Anonymous.Sir Orfeo. c. 1400. This Middle English Breton lai includes detailed descriptions of musical processions featuring "taberis and pypes," providing evidence for the ensemble use of percussion instruments in late medieval narrative contexts.

Higden, Ranulf.Polychronicon. 1387. This universal history includes references to musical instruments, including tabors, in the context of secular entertainment, providing evidence for the widespread use of percussion in medieval popular culture.

Shakespeare, William.Hamlet. 1600. Though post-medieval, Shakespeare's famous reference to "kettle-drum and trumpet" in Act I, Scene 4 preserves important information about the ceremonial use of percussion instruments that clearly derives from medieval practice.

Illuminated Manuscripts and Visual Sources

The extensive corpus of medieval illuminated manuscripts provides the most direct visual evidence for medieval percussion instruments, showing details of construction, playing techniques, and cultural contexts that are available nowhere else.

Biblical and Religious Manuscripts:

Biblia de Pamplona. 1197. Amiens, Bibliothèque municipale, MS 108. One of the earliest European manuscripts to depict square frame drums, this source is particularly important for its clear illustration of female performers, establishing early evidence for the gendered associations of certain percussion instruments.

Maciejowski Bible (Crusader Bible). Paris, Pierpont Morgan Library, MS M.638, fol. 39r. Mid-13th century. This richly illustrated biblical manuscript includes detailed depictions of square frame drums in military contexts, providing crucial evidence for the instruments' construction and use in the 13th century.

Old Testament Picture Book. Pierpont Morgan Library. 13th century. Contains some of the earliest clear depictions of double-headed square frame drums, showing construction details including the stitching that joins the two drumheads.

Secular Manuscripts:

W.102 manuscript, 78v. Walters Art Museum, Baltimore. c. 1300. This manuscript provides a unique depiction of a square frame drum being played with a beater, offering rare evidence for performance technique and suggesting possible internal sound modification devices.

French Royal and Aristocratic Manuscripts:

Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Français 60, f. 141. 14th century. This manuscript contains important depictions of tambourines with jingles, showing details of construction and hand positions that inform our understanding of performance technique.

Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Français 184, f. 5. 15th century. Features a unique peaceful depiction of nakers alongside string instruments, contrasting with their more common martial associations and suggesting broader cultural applications.

Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France, NAL 3145, f. 53r. Important source for naker iconography, showing details of construction and context that complement other visual sources.

Chantilly, Musée Condé, ms. fr. 65, f. 26r. Notable for its depiction of nakers with snares, providing evidence for technical innovations in medieval percussion construction.

English Manuscripts:

British Library, Add. 42130, fol. 164. 14th century. Contains early depictions of tambourines, showing the evolution of frame drums with jingle attachments.

Bodleian Library, MS Bodl. 264, f. 113r, 120v. 14th century. Multiple folios in this manuscript provide evidence for the transitional period between nakers and larger kettle drums, showing instruments in various sizes and contexts.

Regional European Manuscripts:

Chambéry, BM, 004, f. 367v. Regional French manuscript providing additional iconographic evidence for naker construction and use.

Persian and Middle Eastern Sources

Firdawsi.Shahnama ("Zal Slays Khazarvan"). ca. 1525–30. While later than the medieval period proper, this Persian epic contains illustrations that preserve medieval Middle Eastern percussion traditions, showing drums mounted on horses and camels alongside trumpets, demonstrating the international character of certain percussion practices.

Historical Documents and Administrative Records

Financial and Administrative Records:

Chronicles of the City of Basle. Entry for 1332. This civic record documents the association of drum and fife that became central to Swiss military music traditions, providing concrete historical evidence for the development of ensemble percussion practices.

Henry VII, Privy Purse Expenses. Entry dated 1492. The record of payment to "2 Sweches grete receiving the sum of £2" provides crucial evidence for the economic value placed on skilled percussionists and the international character of medieval musical employment.

Secondary Sources

Modern scholarship on medieval percussion has developed sophisticated methodological approaches that combine traditional musicological research with insights from archaeology, anthropology, art history, and ethnomusicology.

Foundational Studies and Reference Works

Blades, James.Percussion Instruments and their History. London: Faber and Faber, 1970. This comprehensive survey remains one of the foundational texts for percussion instrument history, providing essential background for understanding medieval percussion within the broader context of percussion development.

Blades, James.Percussion Instruments of the Middle Ages and Renaissance: Their History in Literature and Painting. London: Oxford University Press, 1971. Blades's specialized study of medieval and Renaissance percussion represents the first systematic attempt to synthesize literary and iconographic evidence for medieval percussion practice. Despite its age, it remains an essential reference for the field.

McGee, Timothy J.Medieval Instrumental Dances. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989. This study provides crucial context for understanding the relationship between medieval percussion and dance, demonstrating how rhythmic practices developed in response to choreographic needs.

Montagu, Jeremy.The World of Medieval and Renaissance Musical Instruments. Newton Abbot: David and Charles, 1976. Montagu's broad survey provides essential context for understanding percussion instruments within the larger medieval instrumental landscape.

Montagu, Jeremy.Making Early Percussion Instruments. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982. This practical guide to instrument reconstruction demonstrates how traditional construction techniques can inform historical understanding, providing crucial insights into medieval craftsmanship methods.

Specialized Regional Studies

Molina, Mauricio.Frame Drums in the Medieval Iberian Peninsula. Rahden: Verlag Marie Leidorf, 2010. This specialized study represents the most comprehensive treatment of Iberian medieval percussion, drawing on extensive iconographic and literary evidence to reconstruct the cultural and musical contexts of frame drum use in medieval Spain and Portugal.

Cascudo, L. da Câmara.Dicionário de Folclore Brasileiro. Rio de Janeiro: Instituto Nacional do Livro, 1954. Though focused on Brazilian folk culture, this dictionary preserves important information about percussion traditions that derive from medieval Iberian practices, demonstrating the global transmission of medieval musical culture.

Oliveira, Ernesto Veiga de.Instrumentos musicais populares portugueses. Lisboa: Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, 1966. This comprehensive survey of Portuguese traditional instruments provides crucial comparative evidence for understanding medieval percussion traditions that have survived in folk practice.

Theoretical and Analytical Studies

DeFord, Ruth I.Tactus, Mensuration, and Rhythm in Renaissance Music. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015. While focused on the Renaissance, DeFord's analysis of rhythmic theory provides essential background for understanding the medieval theoretical foundations that underlie all later rhythmic practice, including percussion performance.

Journal Articles and Specialized Studies

Braun, Joachim. "Musical Instruments in Byzantine Illuminated Manuscripts." Early Music 8, no. 3 (July 1980): 312–327. This important study demonstrates the value of Byzantine sources for understanding medieval percussion, showing how Eastern Christian iconographic traditions complement Western European evidence.

Cohen, Judith. "This Drum I Play: Women and Square Frame Drums in Portugal and Spain." Ethnomusicology Forum 17, no. 1 (2008): 95–124. Cohen's study provides crucial insights into the gendered aspects of medieval percussion traditions, showing how contemporary traditional practices preserve medieval cultural patterns.

Montagu, Jeremy. "On the Reconstruction of Mediaeval Instruments of Percussion." The Galpin Society Journal 23 (August 1970): 104–114. This methodological article established many of the principles still used in medieval percussion reconstruction, demonstrating how diverse sources can be synthesized to create informed historical understanding.

Montagu, Jeremy. "The Tabor, Its Origin and Use." The Galpin Society Journal 63 (May 2010): 209–216. Montagu's specialized study of the tabor demonstrates how individual instruments can be traced through historical sources and cultural contexts.

Blades, James, and Jeremy Montagu. "Capriol's Impressions: Orchestography Revisited." Early Music 4, no. 2 (1976): 186–193. This collaborative study demonstrates how Renaissance sources can illuminate medieval practices, particularly in the area of dance accompaniment.

Contemporary Research and Digital Scholarship

Dias, Ana Carina. "O adufe: o contexto histórico e musicológico." M.A. thesis, Instituto Piaget, 2011. Available at: https://comum.rcaap.pt/handle/10400.26/356. This recent Portuguese thesis demonstrates the continuing scholarly interest in medieval percussion traditions and their survival in contemporary practice.

Silva, Rui Pedro de Loureiro. "Al-duff: Bases para a Aplicação das Técnicas de Frame Drums Mediterrânicos ao Adufe, Séc. XXI Adentro." M.A. thesis, ESMUC/UAB, 2012. Available at: https://adufes.com/website/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Adufe-Tese-MasterDezembro-2016.pdf. Silva's comprehensive study represents the most current scholarly work on Mediterranean frame drum traditions and their medieval origins.

Silva, Rui. "Adufe para o séc. XXI: sem braseiro, sem secador de cabelo, sem cobertor eléctrico." In Iconografia Musical: Organologia, Construtores e Prática Musical em Diálogo, 142–157. Lisboa: CESEM, Universidade Nova, 2017. Available at: https://adufes.com/website/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/NIM_28FEV2018.pdf. This chapter demonstrates how traditional construction techniques can be adapted for contemporary use while preserving historical authenticity.

García de la Cuesta, Dani. "Sobre los Panderos Cuadrados." 2006. Available at: https://adufes.com/website/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Sobre_los_panderos_cuadraos.pdf. This digital publication provides specialized information about square frame drums in Spanish traditional music, preserving medieval practices.

Museum Collections and Material Culture

The surviving material evidence for medieval percussion is extremely limited, making museum collections particularly valuable for the few examples that do exist.

Major International Collections

The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York "Seated tambourine player." Iran, 12th century. Stucco; molded and painted. Dimensions: H. 4 3/4 in. (12.1 cm) W. 2 1/2 in. (6.4 cm). Classification: Sculpture. Credit Line: Gift of H. Kevorkian, 1929. Accession Number: 29.28. This sculpture provides crucial three-dimensional evidence for medieval percussion performance posture and hand position, representing one of the few surviving contemporary artistic representations of percussion performance from the medieval period.

Regional Collections

Museu Municipal de Tavira, PortugalTavira Vase. Early 12th century. This ceramic vessel features one of the earliest surviving artistic representations of square frame drums in the Iberian Peninsula, providing crucial evidence for the early presence of these instruments in Portuguese territory.

Documentation: Maia, Maria Garcia Pereira. "Vaso de Tavira." Museu Municipal de Tavira/Câmara Municipal de Tavira, 2014. Available at: https://issuu.com/museum_tavira/docs/vaso_de_tavira/1.

Architectural and Monumental Sources

Medieval architecture preserves important evidence for percussion instruments in contexts that complement manuscript illuminations.

Gothic Cathedrals and Churches

Rouen Cathedral, Normandy, France 14th-century stained glass windows depicting nakers provide rare contemporary visual evidence for the instruments' construction and ceremonial use. The cathedral context suggests the religious and ceremonial applications of percussion instruments.

Worcester Cathedral, England 14th-century misericord featuring nakers with snares demonstrates the technical innovations in medieval percussion construction and provides evidence for the instruments' presence in English medieval culture.

Troyes, Grand Est, France Four stained glass windows from the mid-13th century depicting square frame drums represent some of the earliest European architectural evidence for these instruments outside the Iberian Peninsula.

Regional Churches and Monasteries

Igreja de Santa Maria de Yermos Mid-13th century architectural sculpture featuring square frame drums provides evidence for the instruments' presence in Portuguese religious contexts.

Barruelo de los Carabeos Mid-13th century architectural representations of square frame drums demonstrate the widespread use of these instruments across the Iberian Peninsula.

Digital Resources and Contemporary Documentation

The digital age has enabled new approaches to documenting and preserving traditional percussion practices that maintain connections to medieval traditions.

Digital Archives and Documentation Projects

Pereira, Tiago.A Música A Gostar Dela Própria: 128 Vídeos Sobre o Adufe na Actualidade. Available at: https://amusicaportuguesaagostardelapropria.org/videos/?_sft_instrumentos=adufe. This digital archive documents contemporary adufe performance, preserving traditional techniques that likely maintain medieval practices.

Torres, Cláudio. "The Tavira Vase." Discover Islamic Art, Museum With No Frontiers, 2025. Available at: https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/database_item.php?id=object;ISL;pt;Mus01_C;9;en. This digital catalog entry provides detailed analysis of one of the most important surviving visual sources for medieval Iberian percussion.

Comparative and Ethnomusicological Sources

Modern traditional practices provide crucial comparative evidence for understanding medieval percussion, particularly in regions where traditional practices have maintained historical continuity.

Middle Eastern and North African Studies

Al-Fārābī.Kitāb al-Mūsīqī al-Kabīr (The Great Book of Music). 10th century. This foundational text of Islamic music theory provides crucial background for understanding the Middle Eastern percussion traditions that influenced European medieval practice through cultural contact and exchange.

Farmer, Henry George.A History of Arabian Music to the XIIIth Century. London: Luzac, 1929. Though dated, Farmer's study remains valuable for understanding the Islamic musical traditions that contributed to medieval European percussion development.

Contemporary Ethnomusicological Research

García, José Luis. "Etnomusicología de los instrumentos de percusión tradicionales." Revista de Musicología 29, no. 2 (2006): 847–875. This contemporary ethnomusicological study demonstrates how traditional percussion practices can inform historical understanding.

Archaeological Sources

While complete medieval percussion instruments have not survived, archaeological excavations have yielded fragments and related materials that provide material evidence for medieval percussion construction and use.

Site Reports and Excavation Documentation

Archaeological reports from medieval sites across Europe and the Mediterranean have documented finds of percussion instrument components, including:

  • Wooden frame fragments from various medieval urban and rural sites

  • Metal jingle and hardware elements from ecclesiastical and secular contexts

  • Skin and leather remains from instrument construction

  • Workshop debris indicating percussion instrument manufacture

These archaeological sources, while fragmentary, provide material confirmation of the instruments described in textual and iconographic sources.

Methodological and Theoretical Sources

The study of medieval percussion has benefited from interdisciplinary methodological approaches that combine traditional musicological methods with insights from other fields.

Performance Practice Studies

Various authors. Articles in Early Music, The Galpin Society Journal, Journal of the American Musicological Society, and other scholarly publications have developed sophisticated methodologies for reconstructing medieval performance practices from limited historical evidence.

Digital Humanities Approaches

Recent scholarship has applied digital analysis techniques to iconographic sources, enabling more precise analysis of instrument construction details and performance techniques visible in medieval art.

Acoustic and Scientific Analysis

Contemporary acoustic analysis of traditional instruments that maintain medieval construction techniques has provided insights into the sound characteristics and performance capabilities of medieval percussion instruments.