Three Hole Pipe | Benji Rose

A Brief Overview

The Three Hole Pipe

Fro kechene com þe fyrste cours, WiÞ pypes, and trumpes, and tabours.

—King Richard Coeur de Lion (14th century) by Anonymous

Introduction

The pipe and tabor are two instruments played simultaneously by a single performer. The pipe, typically a duct flute with three finger-holes, is played with one hand, leaving the other hand free to play a percussion instrument, often suspended from the left wrist or arm. The type of percussion instrument can vary, ranging from membranophones to bell or string drums, though a snare drum, or tabor, is most common.

The pipe and tabor first appeared in the Late Middle Ages and are among the few instruments that have remained in continuous use since that period. Medieval iconography often depicts the pipe with its finger-holes positioned more toward the middle of the instrument, while modern versions typically have the holes placed nearer to the distal end. These usually include a thumb-hole and two or three finger-holes. This difference has led to speculation that early pipes may have resembled instruments like the Iberian Flabiol, though direct archaeological evidence is lacking. The earliest clear references to the instrument date from the Renaissance, particularly in the writings of Virdung.

While a standardised design for the pipe is not known, regional variations of the instrument exist across Western Europe, where it has historically been most popular. Given that much information is readily available about the pipe and tabor, I assume the reader is already familiar with the basics of the instrument and its history, so I will avoid reiterating well-known details. For further exploration, a list of recommended readings and listening materials is provided.

Any discussion of the pipe would be incomplete without addressing the harmonic series, known by several names, such as harmonics, overtones, flageolets, or partials. These terms all refer to the tones produced by the harmonic series. The lowest note in this series is called the fundamental, and it is considered the first harmonic. The overtone directly above the fundamental is called the second harmonic, and the sequence continues from there.

Sound, or frequency, is the vibration of air — fluctuations in air pressure. The faster the vibration, the higher the sound. This vibration is typically measured in Hertz (Hz), which indicates the number of cycles per second. One of the most fundamental ratios in the harmonic series is 1:2, which represents the octave. While the first and last tones of the octave are distinct in an absolute sense, they share the same relative pitch. The higher note of the octave sounds qualitatively similar to the lower one, but its frequency is exactly twice as high.

When we double the vibration, such as halving the length of a flute or stopping a violin string at its midpoint, the result is an octave (a 2:1 ratio). Moving to the next overtone, we encounter the 3:2 ratio, which produces the perfect fifth. This is followed by additional overtones, including other octaves, thirds, fifths, sevenths, and so on.

The octave is 1200 cents, a unit used to measure musical intervals. A major issue with tuning in Western music is that the perfect fifth, as derived from the harmonic series, measures at 702 cents. If we continue around a cycle of pure fifths, the octave we arrive at will be about 24 cents sharp.

Western twelve-tone equal temperament addresses this issue by tempering each interval to exactly 100 cents. In this system, the fifth and second are slightly flat, while the third and seventh are tuned slightly sharp, and so on. Other tuning systems have been developed to handle this problem in various ways. Some work well in certain keys but not in others, while others divide the octave into more than twelve notes. However, with overtone flutes, we must accept that these instruments are not designed for strict temperaments. The natural harmonic series that governs their tuning does not align perfectly with modern equal temperament, and adjustments must be made to accommodate this inherent difference.

The three-hole pipe is particularly well-suited for showcasing the harmonic series. It produces more than just the four notes provided by the finger-holes, utilising harmonics due to its narrow bore. For example, a pipe in D will produce the fundamentals D, E, F-sharp, and G. These fundamental tones are weak and rarely used in practice. However, by overblowing, the same notes can be played one octave higher (the 1st harmonics), and further overblowing produces the notes a perfect fifth above: A, B, C-sharp, and D. This results in a full diatonic scale. Most pipes are able to reach the 3rd and even the 4th harmonics, extending their range to a 12th or 13th. The exact range can vary depending on the instrument and its type.

Because the three-hole pipe uses harmonics to produce its notes, it generally sounds high and shrill - often an octave higher than a flute, whistle, or recorder of the same length.

The pipe is tuned primarily by its natural harmonics, which do not conform to the equal temperament system of classical music. On instruments like the recorder or flute, adjustments can be made in fingering, breath pressure, and embouchure to fine-tune the pitch. These options, however, are not typically available on the three-hole pipe, so its tuning is not as flexible.

Three-hole pipes are available in many sizes, allowing the player to choose an instrument based on the requirements of the piece being played. D is the most common key for English-style instruments, though pipes are also found in C, A, B-flat, G, and F. Other variants exist, though they are typically not played with a drum. These include the Picco pipe, a small variant from Italy, and the fujara, a large version from Slovakia.

In France, the pipe is known by several terms, such as flutet, flûte de tambourin, flûtet-tabor, and flûte à trois trous, while the drum is called tambourin, tabor, or tom-tom. In Middle French, the pipe was referred to as Flaihutel or Flageol, and the drum as tabourin. In the Provence region, the pipe and drum are called the Galoubet and Tambourin. The galoubet has a scale that begins a third below the English tabor pipe, and it is accompanied by a particularly deep drum, the tambourin.

In Germany, the pipe is called Einhandflöte, Tammarinpfeife, Schwegel, or Stamentienpfeiff, with terms like holre and holler used in Middle German. The drum is referred to as Trommel.

In the Iberian Peninsula, the pipe and tabor is known by various names, including flauta y tamboril, txistu (Basque), txirula, and flabiol y bombo (Catalunya and Mallorca). While these instruments all operate in much the same way, they differ significantly in terms of playing style and tuning.

A related instrument in Spain is the flabiol, which allows the player to use one or both hands, employing a distinct fingering system. Unlike the traditional tabor pipe, the flabiol is held in the middle when played one-handed, a manner of holding the instrument often depicted in Medieval iconography. This suggests that the flabiol may be connected to historical instruments.

The pipe and tabor, in various regional forms, remains popular in the Basque region. The txirula and txistu are three-hole pipes typically tuned to the dorian mode. The pipe and tabor (known as danbolin in Basque and tamboril in Spanish) is often played by groups of musicians in the Basque Country, continuing a long tradition of ensemble performances.

From Spain, the pipe and tabor was brought to the Americas, where it continues to play a role in some folk traditions. In the Yaqui Nation of Arizona and Mexico, the tradition persists through the "Tamboristas", musicians who perform using this instrument. The Tarahumara people, living in the mountains of Chihuahua, also have a unique version of the pipe and tabor tradition. They use a three-hole whistle (not featuring a back thumb-hole), made from Arundo donax cane. The drum that accompanies the whistle is a large-diameter, double-headed skin drum, but it has a very narrow wood frame or shell, possibly to reduce overall weight for ease of play.

In southern Ecuador and northern Peru, variations of the pipe and tabor tradition are found, including instruments known as roncadoras or chirocos. These instruments are similar in function to the pipe and tabor, though they may differ in regional construction and playing techniques. The roncadora or chiroco is often used in local folk music, continuing the long tradition of wind and percussion instruments in the Andes.

Each pipe is unique, and some have a greater range than others. Typically, we can expect a pipe to have a playing range of an octave and a fourth (starting from the first overtone, excluding the lowest four notes). Beyond this, it becomes less common for the pipe to reach higher pitches. Some instruments are simply not designed to do so, and in higher-pitched instruments, the sound can become so piercing that the tonal quality suffers. Additionally, the fingering and tuning can become impractical in this extended range.

Lower instruments can often achieve a greater range because they do not become as piercing or shrill in the higher register. However, extending the range of the instrument can introduce new challenges, particularly with tuning. As the range increases, the tuning tends to become more problematic, especially as the natural harmonics deviate further from equal temperament. While the lower-pitched instruments may handle a broader range with less harshness, the limitations of tuning and tonal quality become more pronounced as the instrument stretches beyond its comfortable register.

History

Historically, the pipe and tabor have been depicted in numerous medieval manuscripts and artworks, offering insight into the early use and design of these instruments. For instance:

Horae ad usum romanum (c. 1401-1500): This manuscript features a depiction of a pipe with bone-like structures, demonstrating an early form of the instrument with unique construction techniques.
Skivholme, Denmark (c. 1490): A pipe with a rattle is depicted in this manuscript, suggesting regional variations in the design of both the pipe and accompanying percussion.
Sforza Hours (f. 31r): In this famous illuminated manuscript, both the pipe and a triangle are shown together, further highlighting the diverse range of percussion instruments often paired with the pipe in medieval performances.

The pipe and tabor follow a long-standing tradition shared by other one-handed instruments, such as the pipe and bell, horn and tabor, and frestel (panpipe) and bell. These pairings appear in medieval iconography, with numerous depictions of the frestel and bell dating back to the 11th century, although evidence suggests that this practice may have originated even earlier. For instance, the Paris, BnF, Latin 11550 (fol. 7v) and Jaca Cathedral both feature 11th-century representations of the one-handed frestel. Similarly, 12th-century depictions of the frestel-bell combination can be found in manuscripts like the Basilique Notre-Dame de Beaune (BnF, Latin 343, f. 249v) and in the Église Saint-Nicolas de Civray.

By the 13th century, the pipe and bell had become widely depicted in European art. For example, the c. 1240 manuscript MS M.638 (fol. 39r & 39v) shows a pipe and bell in an ensemble with bones, square drum, long horns, vielle, and harp. The pipe and bell also appear in several other notable works, such as the west façade of the Catedral de Santa María in León and in two depictions from the Alençon, BM 0056, fol. 033 and fol. 226. One of the earliest known references to the pipe and percussion combination appears in an early 12th-century depiction from Anzy-le-Duc, with further examples found in the 13th century, including the Puerta de San Juan at the Cathedral of León, the Puerta de San Froilán, and the 1284–1295 Door of the Majesty at the Collegiate Church of Santa María la Mayor in Toro, Zamora. By the 14th century, the combination of pipe and percussion continued to appear in the Comites Latentes 15 – Liturgical Psalter (f. 69r), held at the Bibliothèque de Genève in Geneva.

The frestel (from the Latin fistula), a medieval form of the panflute, appears throughout the Romanesque period in various forms, often paired with a bell. While the pairing of panpipes with percussion instruments extends beyond the Romanesque period, it is not confined to Europe. For instance, Chimú-Inca ceramic artefacts show panpipes and drums played simultaneously, as seen in the National Museum of Anthropology and Archaeology Collection in Lima (Olsen, 58). In these depictions, the panpipe player often uses one hand to play while drumming with the other, a technique that is also reflected in pots from the Peruvian and Bolivian highlands, where panpipe players are shown shaking rattles while playing their pipes (Olsen, 70).

In several musical traditions, such as those of the Aymara sikuri and the Quechua ayarachi, musicians continue the practice of playing drums while simultaneously blowing their panpipes. This technique has persisted for over a thousand years and is also depicted on ceramic pottery from various pre-Columbian cultures (Olsen, 96).

The pipe and tabor itself appears in Middle English texts, such as in the Anonymous 14th-century King Richard Coeur de Lion and the 1398 De proprietatibus rerum in the Bodleian’s c.1300 MS. Laud Misc. 622. The combination is also referenced in Sir Orfeo (Harley 3810, c.1488), where the following passage describes a procession:

With esy pace and wele avysed,
Taberis and pypes yeden hem by
And alle maner of mynstrelsy;
And ladyes ther com rydyng,
Joly they wer in alle thing;
Jentle and jolef, forsothe, y wys.

The earliest known depiction of the pipe and tabor in England is found in the famous misericord of Exeter Cathedral, Devon, dating from c.1230-1279. Other early depictions of the instrument can be found in the cathedrals of Lincoln and Gloucester, as well as in Tewkesbury Abbey. While the misericord at Exeter is the earliest reference to the instrument, Montagu (1997) notes that the pipe and tabor seems to have appeared at the same time as many instruments from the Arab world began to surface in Europe. However, there is no evidence suggesting that the pipe and tabor originated in Arabia. The term tabor itself comes from the Middle Persian word tambūr, meaning "lute" or "drum," and the influence of the Arabic tunbur (“lute”) led to the Old French tabour (Harper, 2014).

While the Exeter misericord marks the earliest known visual representation, this does not necessarily indicate an English origin for the instrument. The pairing of wind instruments with percussion appears to have been a widespread practice across different cultures, from medieval Europe to the Andean highlands, continuing to influence musical traditions today. This suggests that, like other instruments of the time, the pipe and tabor likely developed from a blend of both indigenous European traditions and foreign influences, particularly from the Arab world.

Additionally, there is a long-standing association between the pipe and tabor and dancing bears, with references to this tradition dating from the 13th century and continuing well into the late 1800s, especially in Western Europe. In these performances, the pipe and tabor were used to accompany the movements of trained bears, who would dance to the rhythm of the music. This tradition, though largely symbolic today, reflects the widespread popularity of the pipe and tabor in both entertainment and ceremonial contexts.

The tabor itself is typically a small drum, as seen in several medieval depictions. These include the ossuary from Basel's Dance of Death by Matthew Merian, the Luttrell Psalter (British Library Add MS 42130, c. 1325-1340, f. 23v), and the Book of Hours (MS H.7, fol. 80v), among others. However, there was significant variety in the type and size of drum used. The tabor could feature a snare, which became common around the 14th century. Snare drums are clearly depicted in:

The murals at the Musée de l'Oise (MUDO), Beauvais, in the north tower of the episcopal palace, dating to the first half of the 14th century (ca. 1313).
The Bodleian Library MS. Bodl. 264, fol. 20v, showing a tabor with a snare.
The Luttrell Psalter (British Library Add MS 42130, c. 1325-1340, f. 23v).

However, some early depictions of the tabor do not show a snare, such as:

The Cantigas de Santa Maria.
The Book of Hours, Marginalia, Walters Manuscript W.88, fol. 115v.
The Book of Hours, MS H.7, fol. 80v.
The Book of Hours, Use of Sarum (second half of the 14th century), Vatican.

One notable depiction from the late Middle Ages appears in the Horae ad usum romanum (c. 1401-1500), Latin 1156B, Folio 165r, which shows a tabor player accompanied by bells on both the drum and the player's clothing, adding a distinctive sound element to the performance. The snare on the tabor was typically located on one side, but in some cases, it was present on both sides of the drum, contributing to a sharper, more percussive sound.

The French theologian Jean de Gerson (c. 1425) refers to the use of the tabor in his Tractatus de Canticis, where he writes:

Sunt alia tympana vulgaribus magis assueta, quia faciliora, quia sonabiliora ad saltus inconditos et alia tripudia, quibus solent jungi fistulae biforaminae.

This translates to: "There are other drums more commonly used by the people, because they are easier and produce a more resonant sound for wild dances and other types of revelry, to which pipes with double-reeds are often joined."

Despite frequent references to the tabor in medieval art and literature, much about how drums were played remains speculative due to the lack of surviving drum music from the period. We can surmise that the drum’s primary function in many contexts was to keep time, particularly in dancing. This is evident in works such as Orchésographie by Thoinot Arbeau (1589), which provides detailed descriptions of the role of percussion instruments, including the tabor, in accompanying dances. In these settings, the drum likely played an essential role in maintaining the rhythm for both dancers and musicians, providing a steady beat to structure the movement.

Finally, the evolution of the pipe and tabor in Europe may reflect the technological development of wind instruments. The earliest depictions of the pipe and tabor, from the middle to the third quarter of the 13th century, show a short, stubby pipe, quite different from the later, more elongated versions. These early representations show the player's hand positioned in the middle of the pipe, rather than near the foot, as in later depictions. Montagu (1997) suggests that these early instruments might have functioned differently from later ones, possibly having more than three fingerholes and thus being independent of the upper partials of the harmonic series, similar to the Catalan flabiol, a modern one-handed pipe played with a drum.

Thus, the pipe and tabor were more than just musical instruments; they were central to a variety of medieval social and ceremonial contexts, from sacred processions to festive entertainment, and continued to evolve as key components of both musical and cultural life throughout the medieval period and beyond.

Although the pipe and tabor is a medieval instrument, it was later, in the Renaissance, that the instrument as we know it came into being, becoming standardised as a pipe and tabor. This development is documented by sources such as Virdung (c.1511), Agricola (1529), and Praetorius (c.1619). However, much about the medieval pipe and its usage remains speculative, as there is limited concrete information available.

A notable feature of Renaissance music was the development of harmony and polyphony—where several independent musical lines occur simultaneously. Alongside this, the Renaissance saw the creation of families, or consorts, of instruments such as the recorder, viol, and violin, with different sizes of instruments corresponding to the full range of the human voice (the gamut). While three-hole pipes did not appear in consorts like the viol or recorder, the Renaissance did witness the production of pipes in various sizes. These instruments were played in different ensemble settings, sometimes alongside larger groups of instruments.

This trend was not unique to the Renaissance; numerous medieval images also depict the pipe and tabor used with other instruments. However, during the Renaissance, there is a much clearer understanding of the context in which the pipe and tabor were used, how they were played, and the kinds of music they accompanied—this contrasts sharply with the medieval period, where there is little information available, and much of our understanding relies on speculation. Moreover, the Renaissance produced a substantial body of varied repertoire that is particularly suited to the pipe and tabor.

For these reasons, it is useful to consult Renaissance sources for guidance on how to play the instrument and for stylistic ideas. While this work is not exclusively concerned with Renaissance pipe and tabor techniques, the information is highly relevant to folk music and new compositions for the pipe and tabor. The aim here is to explore the techniques associated with the instrument and provide clear, comprehensive information on every aspect of its playing.

In the Victorian era, the terms whit (or whittle) and dub(b) were used to refer to the pipe and tabor, respectively. This pairing of wind and percussion instruments seemingly survived into the present day in England, notably through its continued use in Morris dance. It was also employed in Shakespeare’s time, as evidenced in Twelfth Night, where the tabor is mentioned. The instrument remained in use well into the 19th century.

In Twelfth Night (Act III, Scene I), a conversation between Viola and the Fool includes a reference to the (pipe and) tabor:

VIOLA: Save thee, friend, and thy music. Dost thou live by thy tabor?FOOL: No, sir, I live by the church.VIOLA: Art thou a churchman?FOOL: No such matter, sir. I do live by the church, for I do live at my house, and my house doth stand by the church.VIOLA: So thou mayst say the king lies by a beggar if a beggar dwell near him, or the church stands by thy tabor if thy tabor stand by the church.

One famous depiction of the pipe and tabor from the Renaissance period is found in Will Kemp’s Nine Daies Wonder. This work recounts the story of Kemp, Shakespeare’s clown, who danced a Morris from London to Norwich, accompanied by Thomas Slye playing the pipe and tabor. The image of Kemp performing with the pipe and tabor reflects the ongoing popularity of the instrument in both theatrical and folk settings, well into the Renaissance era.

Several 14th- and 15th-century instruments have been discovered in the Netherlands and England. Two instruments were found in Gloucester, England, in the 1980s, and medieval instruments have also been uncovered in Hereford (Megaw, 1960), Canterbury (Megaw, 1969), and Southampton (Megaw, 1975) (Sermon, 1997, Glevensis, 30, 51-52). In addition, 16th-century instruments were recovered from the wreck of the Mary Rose.

Virdung’s Musica Getutscht is the earliest known treatise on musical instruments, where he depicts a three-hole pipe that he calls the Schwegel. Agricola’s Musica Instrumentalis Deudsch (1529) expands upon Virdung only briefly, mentioning that the pipe should be held in the right hand rather than the left. He writes:

Erst nym die pfeiffen ynn die rechte hand
Oder ynn die lincken on alle schand.
Die ander hand, sey dir frey und gemeyn
Ydoch das du das unterst loch allein.
Mit dem finger der noch dem daumen geht
Thust greiffen / wie es in der figur steht.

(Translation: "First take the pipe in the right hand, or in the left without fault. The other hand is free and common, yet you should cover the lower hole alone. With the finger next to the thumb, you must grip, as shown in the figure.")

Praetorius’ Syntagma Musicum (1619) depicts a type of small flute called the Klein flötelein mit vier Lochern (small flute with four holes), which he refers to as the Stamentienpfeiff. He shows this instrument in two sizes: Baß and Discant. Alongside it, he depicts the Klein Pauklin, the tabor (which in modern German is used for timpani). A copy of the Stamentien Baß can be found in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. This instrument, made by Francis William Galpin (English, 1858–1945), is crafted from pearwood with a brass bocal (tube/crook) and is tuned in C, measuring 64.2 cm.

This long flute has French counterparts as well, which Arbeau referred to as lonque flutte, flutte longue, or grand tibie.

Some Dutch sources also describe a type of one-handed flute, the bruloftspype (marriage-flute), which was used with a small tambourine. A similar instrument, the santoripipe (the term santori(e) was used for psaltery and hakkebord/dulcimer), was noted alongside the tamarinpfeife in Württemberg, c.1589.

In Mersenne’s Harmonicorum (1636), the Fluste à trois trous (three-hole flute) is mentioned, highlighting an early form of the instrument.

The French term Galoubet first appears in the 1700s in the Dictionnaire provençal-français (1723). This term refers to a small flute commonly used in southern France. The tambourine associated with it, made from materials such as wood (e.g., boxwood, walnut, maple), brass, and strings (gut or nylon), originates from regions like Gascony, Soule, and Aragon. It is typically used to play airs à danser, such as sauts and branles.

The Galoubet has its roots in the region of Provence, where it was reconstructed by Maurice Guis in the 1990s. From the Renaissance through to the French Revolution, another type of tambourine flute was played, often referred to as the baroque flutet or sharp flute. This instrument was tuned differently, using intervals such as 1 tone - 1/2 tone - 1 tone, and typically played in keys like D or A major, which featured several sharps. Unlike the modern Galoubet, the baroque flutet had a more restricted range of notes, similar to the txistu.

Composers from the Baroque era, particularly those from rural Parisian regions, composed beautiful pieces for this instrument, including works by Marchand, Lemarchant, and Lavallière. Today, six known copies of the baroque flutet exist, including several of Parisian origin. Thanks to the efforts of Maurice Guis, Marius Fabre, and Gérard Superbe, the baroque flutet has been successfully reconstructed and is once again playable.

String Drum (Tambour à Cordes)

In addition to the tabor, the pipe can also be played with other percussion instruments, one of the most elaborate being the string drum. Essentially a chordophone, the string drum is similar to instruments like the psaltery, zither, and dulcimer. It consists of a rectangular box with strings stretched across it and varies in size, though it typically measures around 90 cm in length. The instrument is typically played with a shoulder strap and has between 4 to 6 strings.

Dating back to the Middle Ages, the string drum continued to be in use throughout the Renaissance and Baroque periods and remains a part of the folk music traditions in the Pyrenees today. Like the tabor, the string drum provides both a drone and percussive accompaniment.

In Italy, the instrument is known as the Buttafuoco. Interestingly, it is most often depicted in religious settings during the Middle Ages. In the Renaissance, the instrument appears to have grown larger than its medieval counterpart, with some examples having up to 9 strings.

The string drum first appears in depictions from the late 15th century, such as in the Sforza Hours (f.36v) and in the Church of Santa Maria de Ventosa (Agolada, Pontevedra, 15th-16th centuries). The string drum plays a key role in the practice of three-hole pipe music, especially in the Pyrenees (known as tambor de cuerdas), Catalonia (tambourin de Béarn), Spain (chicotén or salterio), and Italy (Buttafuoco), as well as in France (tambourin à cordes).

The strings of the instrument are typically grouped in choruses, and it can produce both drone sounds and single bass notes. The shape of the instrument is long, slightly trapezoidal, with wave-shaped sides.

South America

In South American indigenous cultures, the combination of wind and percussion instruments played by a single performer is a widespread tradition, although the specific types of flutes and percussion instruments vary significantly by region.

In particular, one-handed flutes, played alongside percussion instruments, are found in a variety of regions, including Argentina, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Mexico, and Chile.

Andes

The pinkillo (also known as pinkullo, pinguyo, pinqayllo, or pinkhuyllu) is a traditional flute from the Andes, specifically the Andean region. The name "pinkillo" likely derives from the Quechua word pinkullu and broadly refers to any type of vertical recorder, regardless of its material (wood, bone, reed), number of finger holes, or the playing style (solo or group performance). Different variations of the pinkillo may carry additional names, such as pinkhuyllu bull or pinkillo moheño, which denote specific regional or cultural traditions.

In the Baile del Torito (Dance of the Little Bull), the pinkillo is typically crafted from a cylindrical-conical piece of wood or cane, measuring around 45 cm in length. It has three finger holes and a mouthpiece made from a wooden piece at the proximal end of the flute. The nozzle is usually cut at a right angle. To prevent cracking, the flute's body is often reinforced with animal tendon rings or tape. Bolivia is particularly renowned for producing some of the finest examples of this instrument.

The caja chayera, a percussion instrument commonly used throughout the Andes, accompanies the pinkillo in this region. Known in early Spanish documentation as tinya (a Quechua term still used in Peru), the caja is a type of membranophone that varies in size and shape depending on the specific region. Generally, it consists of a wooden frame, about 40-45 cm in diameter, with two leather heads. These heads are often made from different animal hides, contributing to the instrument's varied timbre. The drum is typically tensioned with a rope or leather system that secures the heads to the body of the drum.

In the Baile del Torito (Dance of the Little Bull), the caja provides the rhythmic foundation, while the pinkillo carries the melody. The drum may also feature a bordona or chirlera, a traditional rope made from equine bristles or wound string, which vibrates during play, adding a buzzing sound to the deep, resonant tone of the instrument.

In northern Chile, the caja chayera is held on the wrist of the same hand that plays the flute, while the other hand strikes the drum with a drumstick. The melody played by the flute is simple and repetitive, serving as both the rhythmic and melodic foundation for the beña dance. This dance involves several figures and changes and is an integral part of a religious and cultural celebration. During the celebration, offerings are made to the saint, and the "carneo" (sacrificial bull) is performed.

Southeastern Bolivia: The Kamacheña

The kamacheña (or camacheña) is a traditional flute made from a segment of cane or bamboo, usually between 30 and 35 cm long. It is cut between two natural plant knots, with the mouthpiece carved at the proximal end. The flute features a unique design, with two side flaps or "fins" carved into it, allowing the player to use one hand for playing while stabilizing the flute with their mouth.

Played with the left hand, the kamacheña is accompanied by the right hand striking a chayera box or membranophone. The side flaps provide support for the mouth, helping the performer control the airflow while playing. The music produced by the kamacheña is often associated with specific dances, such as ruedas, in which dancers form a circle and move in rhythmic patterns.

This tradition is particularly widespread in the northwestern Argentine provinces of Jujuy and Salta, as well as in parts of Tarija in southern Bolivia. The kamacheña is strongly linked to seasonal festivals, such as San Roque and All Saints' Day, which take place during the dry season and align with significant agricultural rites.

In addition to the kamacheña, several other variations of similar one-handed flutes can be found in the southern Chaco region, which spans northeastern Argentina, southern Paraguay, and southeastern Bolivia. These flutes vary in terms of material, length, and ornamentation, and they are played by various indigenous groups, including the Qom (Toba), Pi'laqá (Pilagá), and Wichi (Mataco). In this region, some flutes feature as many as six finger holes and are typically played by men in non-ceremonial contexts.

Southern Plateau: Waka-Pinkillo and Other Flutes

The southern highlands of Bolivia and Peru feature a range of one-handed flutes, including the waka-pinkillo. This flute, made from a segment of suqusa reed, is approximately 60 cm long and has three finger holes—two on the front and one on the back. It is commonly played in ensembles, where groups of musicians use two sizes of flutes tuned in parallel fifths. These waka-pinkillo ensembles can consist of 10 to 30 musicians, creating a lively and resonant sound.

The waka-pinkillo is paired with a wank'ara, a large double-headed drum played by the same musician. Unlike the smaller caja chayera of the north, the wank'ara is significantly larger and includes a chirlera—a buzzing device made from thorns or splinters—attached to the non-striking head. The waka-pinkillo is traditionally played during dances called wakas, which celebrate agricultural cycles. The term "waka" refers to the bull, a symbol of fertility and the breaking of soil for planting.

This flute is primarily used in the Bolivian provinces of Aroma, Omasuyos, and La Paz, as well as in the Puno and Conima regions of Peru. In addition to the waka-pinkillo, other types of one-handed flutes are also used in the Andean region, such as the liku, which accompanies the wit'iti dance, and the paya p'iya, linked to the pacochis dance. These instruments, often played alongside drums, provide the musical foundation for both ritual and celebratory dances.

Double Flutes from South America

Double flutes are relatively uncommon in South America, though they can still be found in certain indigenous cultures, especially in the central Andes. These instruments are classified as 421.222.12 in the Hornbostel-Sachs organological system. Unlike traditional single-tube flutes, double flutes feature two or more tubes played together, either as paired or multiple-aerophones.

In Ecuador, the dulzaina is a type of double flute composed of two recorders of different lengths. It is commonly used in funeral rituals, such as the ayanfaile ceremony in the Azuay province. Originally made from tin, dulzainas are now typically crafted from wood or cane and are used in ceremonial settings, including funeral dances and songs.

In Peru, double flutes are referred to as bagpipes and are made from various materials like wood, bamboo, and cane. These flutes are often played in pairs, with one flute carrying the melody and the other providing a drone. They are used during festivals and local ceremonies in regions such as Cajamarca, Hualgayoc, and Junín.

In Bolivia, near Lake Titicaca, the uña pinkillo is a distinctive type of double flute. This instrument consists of a larger flute, measuring 60-80 cm in length with 4-6 front holes, paired with a smaller flute, only 10-15 cm long, that lacks finger holes. It is used in traditional dances and celebrations across both Peru and Bolivia.

In Brazil, the Nambikwara and Waura peoples are known to use double flutes, particularly in ceremonial contexts like the kwaryp celebration.

Though double flutes are less prevalent in South America than their single counterparts, they remain an integral part of the continent's indigenous musical traditions, adding to the rich diversity of regional music, particularly in the Andes and surrounding areas.

Regional names and types of drum

Majorque

Pipe: Flabiol mallorquín
Drum: Tamboril

Catalogne

Pipe: Flaviol, Flabiol, Flubiol
Drum: Tamborí

Ibiza

Pipe: Flauta Ibicena
Drum:(none listed)

Andalousie

Pipe: Pito Rociero
Drum:(none listed)

León

Pipe: Flauta Maragata, Chifla Leonesa
Drum:(none listed)

Castille et León

Pipe: Gaita Charra, Gaita extremeña
Drum:(none listed)

Aragon

Pipe: Chiflo
Drum: Salterio, Chicoten, Tambor de cuerdas

Andalusian, Zamora-Salamanca

Pipe: Gaita
Drum:(none listed)

Euzkadi (Pays Basque)

Pipe: Txistu, Txistu haundi, Silbote
Drum: Tamboril

Iparralda, Soule (Pays Basque français)

Pipe: Txirula, Txürüla
Drum: Txun-Txun

Gascogne (Bearn, Landes)

Pipe: Flabuta Chirula
Drum: Tamborin a cordas, Tun-Tun, Ttun-Ttun

Spain

Pipe: Pito rociero
Drum:(none listed)

Bari, south-east Italy

Pipe: Flauto a 3 fori
Drum: Tamburo A Corde

The Fujara

The fujara (plural fujary), a large bass flute with three finger-holes, is an iconic Slovak instrument that has captured the cultural imagination both within Slovakia and internationally. It is particularly tied to the rural regions of Podpoľanie, Horehronie, Gemer, and Hont, with the town of Detva being central to its cultural heritage. The term Detvianska fujara refers to fujaras made in this area. The instrument is sometimes called fujera or fujarka, and in neighboring Romania, it is known as fluierul or fuieru—terms that also refer to various smaller flutes, often crafted from willow. The Polish have historically used similar names, though these typically refer to different types of small flutes or pipes.

The name fujara may have its roots in the Slavic verbs fœkat, fujať, or fujak, which mean "to blow," linking the term to any wind instrument played by direct air pressure. In this sense, the word might have originally referred to any type of flute or pipe. However, the fujara's unique characteristics, such as its size, tone, and role in Slovak shepherding traditions, distinguish it from other flutes.

Connection to Slovak Shepherds

The fujara is most closely associated with the bača, the chief shepherd, and is an integral part of life in the Slovakian mountains, where it has historically been played in solitude or among small groups of fellow shepherds. The instrument is not used for group folk music in the same way as other instruments, such as the cimbalom or whistle, but it has occasionally been paired with these in folk ensembles, often in duets or trios. While not typically used for dance music, the fujara has a particular place in Slovak folk music, with certain exceptions where it does appear in a more communal setting.

In 2005, the fujara was inscribed on the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage List, helping to raise its profile and introduce it to global audiences. Despite this recognition, the instrument's historical background is still somewhat enigmatic, and its origins are the subject of much speculation.

Theories on the Origins of the Fujara

There are several popular theories regarding the fujara's origin. One suggestion is that it evolved from the tabor pipe, an early European wind instrument. Others link it to the Stamentien Baß, an instrument with similar tonal qualities, or argue that it was brought to Slovakia during the 17th-century Turkish wars, when soldiers may have introduced it to Slovenská Ľupča. However, no conclusive evidence supports these theories, and many scholars believe the fujara's development is intertwined with the unique cultural history of the Slovak mountains.

It is also possible that the fujara shares roots with the ancient flutes described by Ibn Rusta in the 9th century. While he mentioned flutes played by the Saqaliba, the term may refer to the general Slavic people, making it plausible that Slovakia was one of the regions where such flutes were found. However, these connections remain speculative, and the exact origins of the fujara are still unknown.

Construction and Features

The fujara is made from elder wood (Sambucus nigra), which is valued for its straight growth and ease of carving. The wood's soft inner pith makes it suitable for boring the instrument, and after harvesting, it is seasoned for several years to ensure durability. The fujara can range in size from 90 cm to over 200 cm in length, with larger instruments being more common. Historically, smaller fujary (around 90–150 cm) were sometimes constructed with a thumb hole, though modern versions typically feature only three finger-holes.

A distinctive feature of the fujara is its air channel (or bocal, known as vzduchovod in Slovak), which connects the player's mouth to the flute’s body. This is necessary due to the instrument's large size, which makes it impossible for the player to blow directly into the pipe while reaching the finger-holes. The fujara’s body is slightly curved, following the natural shape of the wood, and the air channel is typically supported by a leather belt (šviheľ) to help balance the weight of the instrument.

Like other duct-blown instruments (such as the recorder), the fujara produces sound through a labium (hrana) and block (klátik) at the top of the instrument, which directs air into the pipe. The fujara’s range spans up to three octaves, and its harmonics can be used to create a range of pitches—approximately 21 notes—thanks to a combination of fingerings and breath pressure. Unlike simpler wind instruments, the fujara can reach the seventh harmonic without difficulty, giving it a rich, resonant tone.

The Playing Technique

Due to its size, the fujara is typically played solo, with the player using both hands to cover the finger-holes. The player controls the pitch by varying finger placements and adjusting breath pressure. The fujara’s ability to produce overtones is one of its defining characteristics, and skilled players can achieve chromatic notes by partially covering the finger-holes, though this technique is less common than in other types of wind instruments like the tabor pipe.

A notable feature is the fly hole (mušia dierka), found on some fujaras, though its exact function is unclear. It is theorised that it may assist in fine-tuning the instrument’s pitch or play a role in achieving certain harmonic effects, though its precise purpose remains ambiguous.

Cultural Symbolism and Contemporary Usage

Historically, the fujara was a symbol of Slovak shepherding culture, but over time it has become intertwined with national identity. The instrument is often associated with the freedom fighters of the 17th and 18th centuries, including Juraj Jánošík, the famous Slovak rebel. Later romanticizing of the instrument in 19th-century poetry helped to cement its status as a symbol of Slovak resistance and cultural pride.

Today, the fujara continues to be celebrated as a symbol of Slovak heritage, but it has also found new life in contemporary music. Marco Trochelmann in Germany, Bohuslav Rychlik in the United States, and Walter Vogelmayer in Australia are just a few examples of musicians exploring the fujara’s potential beyond its traditional folk context. The instrument is now being integrated into experimental and electronic music, blending its ancient sound with modern techniques.

Modern Developments and Future Directions

The fujara is also evolving through innovation. The creation of Futujaras made from PVC has introduced the instrument to a broader audience. These instruments, while not able to replicate the exact tonal qualities of the traditional wooden fujara, offer a more affordable and accessible version for beginners and educational purposes. Makers have also begun developing new designs, such as the fujara-dvojka (a double-flute variant) and even multi-pipe versions, which could open new possibilities for fujara players.

The ongoing development of fujara techniques, such as playing the instrument with live electronics or combining it with other less-conventional instruments like the shakuhachi, chalumeaux, or duduk, suggests that the future of the fujara lies in its integration into diverse musical genres. This expansion of the fujara’s role in the global music scene is also supported by its growing presence in international festivals and collaborations, where its haunting tones continue to captivate listeners around the world.

Recommended Listening

To deepen your understanding of the fujara and its contemporary use, the following listening materials offer a diverse array of performances and perspectives.

Documentaries and Talks:

Winfried Skrobek’s Documentary on the Fujara
An insightful German-language documentary exploring the rich history and modern usage of the fujara
Bohuslav "Bob" Rychlik's TED Talk
A comprehensive introduction to the fujara, its history, and its role in Slovak culture, presented by one of the instrument's most passionate advocates

Individual Artists:

Nadishana
A unique fusion of traditional and modern soundscapes
Max Brumberg
Exploring the possibilities of the fujara through solo performances and collaborations.
Griselda Sanderson
A series of performances showcasing her approach to fujara music.
Marco Trochelmann
A pioneer in bringing the fujara into contemporary music settings.
Albums such as Fujara (2003), Maveya (2004), and Prepared Spaces (2013) represent a critical blend of tradition and innovation.
Jan Marmenout - Double Fujara Solo
An intriguing performance by Marmenout, playing two fujary simultaneously
Winne Clement
Another fujara virtuoso known for his deep exploration of the instrument’s potential
Atsufumi Ujiie
A fusion of global influences and the fujara's unique sound

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