A Study of Sympathetic String Instruments from East to West
The Viola d'Amore: Cultural Exchange and Musical Innovation
12 stringed kemani in the Mevlâna Mausoleum; Konya, Turkey (Inv. No. 1405.19.YY.).
The kemani here is found in a display case in the semahane, alongside two kemençe, tambourines, tambur, oud, and a number of flutes.
The oud dates to 1917 and belonged to Şerif Muhiddin Targan and was presented to the mausoleum in 1983 by his widow. Like the oud with ivory and mother of pearl woven on the medallion, pegs and filgrboard, the kemani has an ivory tail-piece, fingerboard and pegs, and was presented to the mausoleum by one Laika Karabakh.
Introduction
Thus Amor with the bandaged eyes,
Fit symbol of hushed numbers,
Most musically wakes and sighs
After an age of slumbers:
Beneath your magic bow's control
The Viol has regained her soul.
— Mathilde Blind
The viola d'amore, one of the most enigmatic instruments in the history of Western music, has long captured the curiosity of scholars and musicians. Known for its ethereal and intimate sound, the "viola of love" evokes a sense of romance and mystique. However, its origins remain unclear, with little concrete historical evidence to pinpoint its early development. One of the prevailing theories suggests a connection between the viola d'amore and instruments from the East, particularly those with sympathetic strings. This has led to speculation that the name "viola d'amore" might not refer to "of love," but rather "of the Moors" (da More), though this remains uncertain.
Despite these ambiguities, it is generally accepted that the viola d'amore established its presence in European courts by the late 17th century. While the instrument was utilised by Baroque composers, its limited dynamic range and softer, less brilliant tonal qualities—compared to the violin—meant that it was primarily used in more intimate musical settings. Its role in larger orchestras was somewhat limited, as it was rather ill-suited to the more virtuosic demands of the time. Nevertheless, the repertoire for the viola d'amore remains a significant, though sparse, part of the Baroque musical canon. Somewhat famously, more instruments survive from the period than pieces written for them!
The instrument's history is further enriched by its connection to its Turkish counterpart, the sînekemani. The sînekemani, also known as the "breast fiddle," was held against the breast while played, a distinctive playing technique that sets it apart from other string instruments like the kemençe or the rabāb, which are held upright on the knee. This unique style of playing, with the instrument resting on the chest without a chin rest, is still found in Turkish violin techniques today.
It is believed to have been introduced to Istanbul in the second half of the 18th century, where it was quickly adopted into Turkish music. In fact, the sînekemani replaced the kemençe in Ottoman court music and remained a central part of the court's musical traditions until the late 19th century.
As a result, the viola d'amore stands as a symbol of cultural exchange and musical innovation, its legacy resonating across both European and Ottoman musical traditions. Throughout its history, the instrument has undergone numerous design fluctuations, adopting characteristics from both the violin and viol families to varying degrees. Some versions of the viola d'amore feature frets and flat backs, which are typical of the viol family, while others display curved backs, adjusters (for one or both sets of strings), and chin rests, resembling features more commonly found in violins and violas.
The use of sympathetic strings, while often present, is not universal to all violas d'amore. Similarly, the rose-shaped sound hole, which is placed just beneath the fingerboard, is a common feature, though not found on every example. The sympathetic strings are what set the viola d'amore apart from both the violin and viol families, aligning it more closely with instruments like the sitar and sarangi, as well as European instruments with sympathetic strings, such as the hardingfele and Låtfiol of Scandinavia and the gǎdulka of Bulgaria.
In one form or another, the viola d'amore has maintained a unique position on the periphery of classical music throughout its existence. However, there is a notable gap in historical research on the instrument. Information on the viola d'amore is scarce, and many erroneous facts about its design, history, and role in music are frequently encountered in both scholarly and popular discussions.
The viola d'amore we recognise today typically features six or seven playing strings, with an equal number of sympathetic strings. These instruments have become more widely used in contemporary times than at any point in the instrument's history. Modern-day musicians have greater access to resources, recordings, scores, and research on the viola d'amore, and they can usually easily acquire high-quality strings and instruments. Despite these advances, aspiring d'amorists usually come from a violin or viol background, as it is nearly unheard of for a student to begin with the viola d'amore without prior experience in either of those instruments.
However, there remains a scarcity of comprehensive educational resources for the viola d'amore. Most instructional methods are outdated, leaving a gap in accessible guidance for learners. The first known method for the instrument was Huberti's "New Method for the Viola d'Amore", published in Vienna around 1740. Since then, several tutors have been released, but the majority of them are still geared toward musicians transitioning from violin or viol techniques.
Notable works include Paul Shirley's "The Study of the Viola d'Amore" (1920), Goldis' "Schule für Viole d'Amour" (1916), which serves as a guide for violinists wishing to take up the viola d'amore, and an apparently unobtainable "Methode de Viola d'Amour" by Corras, published in Paris in 1924. Additionally, there is an article titled "The Viola d'Amore, Yesterday and Today" in the 1939 "Modern Viola Technique" by Dolejší, which provides a general history of the instrument. More recently, Kral's "Anleitung zum Spiele der Viole d'Amour" (c. 1970) has offered further insights into playing techniques.
Despite the increasing availability of these resources, the viola d'amore remains somewhat peripheral in the mainstream classical music world. Nonetheless, it continues to inspire musicians and scholars, with a growing interest in its history, design, and techniques.
Research on the Viola d'Amore
Early research into the viola d'amore was limited to brief descriptions in works such as Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians (1900), Andrews' History of Music (1910), and Galpin's The Viols and Violins (1911). These early studies provided only basic overviews, without delving deeply into the instrument's origins or historical significance.
The theory that the viola d'amore originated outside of Europe can be traced back to Fétis, who in his Historie Générale de la Musique (1869) suggested that the instrument had roots in India, later spreading through the Middle East to Bulgaria. This idea posits the instrument's movement across cultures, highlighting the potential exchange between the East and the West. Similarly, Bricqueville's "La Viole d'Amour" (1908) introduced the notion of a Moorish origin for the viola d'amore, indicating an African or Arab influence.
The first comprehensive study of the viola d'amore's history was written by Harry Danks in his 1976 book The Viola d'Amore. This work compiled all available evidence at the time and largely embraced the theory of the instrument's Moorish origin, solidifying the idea that the viola d'amore was influenced by instruments from outside Europe.
More recently, Berck's 2008 publication Die Viola d'Amore (in German) serves as an update to Danks' research, incorporating new findings while still acknowledging his foundational work. Berck's book has become an essential reference in viola d'amore scholarship, further expanding on the instrument's origins, design, and historical role in European and Middle Eastern musical traditions.
Recent Research: Rachael Durkin's Study on the Viola d'Amore
The most recent and comprehensive scholarly work on the viola d'amore is Rachael Durkin's 2021 book, The Viola d'Amore. Durkin's study is the most detailed to date, and it stands as the only full scholarly history of the instrument. In her research, Durkin describes the viola d'amore as a seventeenth-century invention, originally a five-string viol played with wire strings (instead of gut), later acquiring a sixth string during the latter part of the century—an observation first noted by Sachs in 1940.
Durkin's work emphasises the north German focus on the early viola d'amore, noting both its use and its manufacture in that region. She provides a thorough review of the documentary evidence available from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, discussing both iconography and surviving instruments from that period. Durkin also examines the history of the viola d'amore with sympathetic strings, analysing the documentary records, the makers, and the surviving examples of the instrument.
Eastern Origins of the Viola d'Amore
Durkin touches briefly on the instrument's eastern origin, but with caution. She writes:
"The history of sympathetic strings in non-Western cultures is obscure, but unlikely to have influenced their development in Europe."
She also addresses the flame-type sound holes, a distinctive feature of many viola d'amore models, noting that these have been referred to as "flaming swords" in reference to the flaming sword motif found in Islamic art or the Persian sword (shamshir). However, she argues that this connection is likely a symbolic interpretation rather than an actual historical link. According to Durkin:
"The flame-type soundholes… have come to be known as 'flaming swords' in reference to the flaming sword found in Islamic art, and the curved Persian sword known as a shamshir, but this appears to be nothing more than an attempt to explain the unusual appearance of their design in tandem with the instrument's supposed Eastern origin. It is possible that the shape came to symbolise wire string resonance, although a number of viols with no evidence of wire strings survive with flame-type soundholes, meaning that this design was not necessarily exclusive."
While Durkin's research does not go into further detail about the instrument's role in Turkey, it sheds light on the broader history and significance of the viola d'amore.
Throughout its history, the viola d'amore has been described as possessing a delicate beauty—its sound ethereal, soft, and silver-toned. It occupies a different auditory space compared to the violin, and part of the reason for its eventual decline can be attributed to the changing demands of music: louder, faster, and more virtuosic music became the norm as technical dexterity took precedence over tone quality.
Around 1818. Catalog des Costumes Turcs, 1818. Ankara Ethnography Museum, 8283, y. 195.
Signed by Abdullah Bukhari. 1744. UK T9364, y. 10
Greek playing the violin. Catalog des Costumes Turcs, around 1818. Ankara Ethnography Museum, 8283, y. 95
String Instruments in the Ottoman Palace
String instruments held a crucial role in shaping the musical traditions of the Ottoman palace. Over the centuries, these instruments evolved in both design and function, contributing significantly to the court's musical life. Among the key string instruments used in the palace were the kemânçe (also called rebâb), the armudî kemençe, and the sînekemân. Each of these instruments occupied a distinct position in the musical culture of the Ottoman court during different periods.
Kemânçe (Rebâb)
The kemânçe was the dominant string instrument in the Ottoman court until the 18th century, playing a central role in the palace's music. The instrument itself has a long history, known to the Turks since the Uighur period and called by various names, such as ıklığ and rebâb. It had been a mainstay in Central Asian and Middle Eastern music long before its integration into the Ottoman tradition (Sertkaya, 1982; Ögel, 2000).
Traditionally, the kemânçe featured a soundbox made from materials like coconut, wood, or pumpkin, covered with leather, and was played with a bow made from horsehair. Initially strung with two strings, it eventually evolved to have three, tuned to Yegâh, Dügâh, and Neva (Bardakçı, 1986; Farmer, 1997). Despite its status as a core instrument in the Ottoman palace music for centuries, its use gradually declined in the second half of the 18th century and it eventually fell out of favor in the Enderun (Palace School). However, there is evidence suggesting the kemânçe continued to be played in the harem until the 19th century (Saz, 1974; Topkapı Palace Museum Inventory, no. 8/853).
Erol (2015) highlights the diversity in the Ottoman music scene, noting how practitioners hailed from various ethnic, confessional, and social backgrounds, with some like the Greek Orthodox musicians making significant contributions to the Ottoman musical landscape. This reflects a broader pattern of intercultural exchange, which undoubtedly influenced instruments like the kemânçe.
Kemençe (Armudî Kemençe)
The armudî kemençe, or fasil kemençe, emerged in the 18th century under Greek influence and gradually became a staple of Ottoman music, particularly in the fasil genre. The instrument evolved from the medieval Greek lira and is similar to the kemânçe but with a more refined construction. It has a pear-shaped soundbox carved from a single piece of wood and typically features three strings. The instrument is played with a bow made from horsehair and is usually tuned to Yegâh, Rast, and Neva (Yekta, 1986; Aksoy, 2003).
By the early 19th century, the armudî kemençe became firmly established as an essential instrument for fasil music, a genre of Turkish classical music performed in ensembles. Records from the time show that notable musicians, such as Kemençeci Tahir Ağa, performed with the instrument in the court, while miniatures depict performances in the presence of Sultan Mahmud II (Saz, 1974; Sevengil, 1959–68). The instrument's prominence continued until the late Ottoman period, and it remained an integral part of Ottoman musical culture, as reflected in preserved examples in the Topkapı Palace Museum (T.S.M. Inventory, no. 8/858).
Sînekemân
The sînekemân, a violin-like string instrument, was introduced into the Ottoman music scene in the early 18th century, likely influenced by the European viola d'amore. It arrived in Istanbul around the mid-18th century and quickly became a prominent feature of Ottoman court music. The sînekemân was similar to the violin in terms of playing technique and overall design but had a slightly larger body. It featured six or seven strings, with additional metallic sympathetic strings placed beneath the main strings. Like the violin, it was played with a bow and was tuned to complex maqams such as Kaba Yegâh, Kaba Iraq, Kaba Dügâh, Yegâh, Iraq, Dügâh (Rast), and Neva (Montagu, 2002a; Aksoy, 2003).
One of the most significant moments in the history of the sînekemân in the Ottoman court was its introduction by a Greek musician from Corci in the mid-18th century. This marks the first recorded use of the sînekemân in the palace (Fonton, 1987). Over time, the sînekemân became increasingly popular and was frequently used in palace performances, with court records mentioning musicians like Kemânî Miron, Kemânî İbrâhim Ağa, and others who were noted for their proficiency with the instrument (T.S.M. Archive, no. D/2272, D/2455, D/2457, D/4359, D/2231, D/703; Uzunçarşılı, 1977).
By the early 19th century, the sînekemân had gained significant prominence in the Ottoman court, even surpassing the kemânçe in popularity. Records indicate that Kemânî Ali Ağa played both the kemânçe and sînekemân in the palace, further cementing the latter's importance (Öztuna, 1970–76; T.S.M. Inventory, no. 8/906). However, by the second half of the 19th century, the sînekemân had fallen out of favour, with few remaining examples of its use beyond the harem (Saz, 1974; Fonton, 1987).
String instruments played an integral role in the musical life of the Ottoman palace, evolving in response to both internal and external influences. As noted by Erol (2015), the diversity of the Ottoman musical scene was shaped by a variety of cultural interactions, including the contributions of Greek Orthodox musicians, whose musical practices helped enrich the court's sonic landscape. Over time, the kemânçe, armudî kemençe, and sînekemân each made distinct contributions to the musical traditions of the empire. These instruments not only reflect the fusion of Eastern and Western influences but also embody the dynamic nature of Ottoman musical culture during a period of profound transformation. The continued evolution of these instruments through the centuries marks the adaptation of the Ottoman musical traditions to changing societal, cultural, and political climates, ultimately shaping the musical identity of the empire.
The Metropolitan Museum has a late 19th century Turkish Kemangeh with sympathetic strings: The Crosby Brown Collection of Musical Instruments, 1889, Object Number: 89.4.1376a, b.
Rebab and Rebec
Paris, BnF, Français 161 f.276 - this 14th century illumination seems to show an instrument with sympathetic strings. This would be the earliest depiction of sympathetic strings found (see also, Paris, BnF, Français 2 f.218).
The rebab is generally recognised as the ancestor of the modern violin, with its earliest written references dating back to the 9th century. The first European mention of bowed instruments appears in Spain in the Mozarabic manuscript of the Apocalypse of St. John, known as the San Millán Beatus from around 930 AD. This manuscript illustrates early depictions of bowed instruments.
By the 10th century, the Beati in Apocalipsin libri duodecim (Vit. 14-1) reveals larger instruments, held upright and played with a bow, likely referring to the vielle (or fidel, viuola)—a medieval fiddle. These instruments were typically played with a C-shaped bow, common in the 10th century, and were often strummed or played downwards, with some examples reaching considerable sizes.
In later versions, such as the Facundus Beatus (1047), we see instruments held upright and played without a bow. Although the bowed version of the rebab became more common, plucked versions of the instrument remained in use. These plucked variations are even depicted in some 12th-century Romanesque carvings, showing that the rebab continued to be represented both as a bowed and plucked instrument during this period (Sertkaya, 1982; Ögel, 2000).
The c.1050 Catalan Psalter (Museo Nazionale, Florence, Coll. Carrand, No. 26) is the earliest known depiction of the rebec. It shows the three-stringed piriform instrument before the word rebek appears in a 12th-century manuscript (Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale, Ms. Lat. 14754), which contains a table of Arabic and Latin terms. This instrument, as seen in the Beatus de Liébana, reflects Mozarabic art that arrived on the Iberian Peninsula after the 8th century and the Umayyad conquest of the Visigothic Kingdom. During this time, a rebec-like instrument was known to the Arabs, though evidence for it being bowed has not been found. By the 11th century, the Arab rebab had become known in Spain, and bowed instruments were already present in Byzantium from the 8th-9th centuries (Farmer, 1930: 777).
Byzantine instruments differed from their Arab counterparts in several ways. Byzantine instruments could be held on the neck, shoulder, or breast (though not always in these positions), and their pegboxes were flat and rhomboidal in artwork. In contrast, Islamic pegboxes were bent backward (Martínez, 2002). Additionally, Byzantine bows were straight, unlike the curved bows of the Arab instruments. By the 11th century the rebec spread across Europe, becoming widely known by c.1100. During this period, the number of strings became more standardised, typically three or six, in contrast to the two or four strings of earlier Arab and Byzantine instruments.
In 13th-century France, Jerome of Moravia's Tractatus de Musica (c.1280) describes the rubeba as a bowed instrument with two strings tuned a fifth apart. At this time in France, the vielle was the prevailing bowed instrument. This rubeba was further described by the Italian Pietro d'Abano in 1310 in his Expositio Problematum Aristotelis. By the late 14th century, the Tunisian scholar Ibn Khaldun also mentions the rebab in his Muqaddimah, describing it as a bowed instrument with two strings.
No historical specimens have survived to the present day, and even Renaissance examples are rare. One notable survival is the rebecchino in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna (inventory no. 433), an elaborately decorated 15th-century example of possibly Venetian origin. Early Islamic traditions forbade depictions of the real world, making literary descriptions the primary source for information on the early instrument. Farmer notes that "legend among Islamic peoples says that the rabāb was played before Solomon, whilst tradition has it that the instrument was known to the Arabs in pre-Islamic times" (Farmer, 1930: 775).
The rebec itself has a bowl-shaped body, carved from a single piece of wood that is scooped and chiselled out. It is typically played on the shoulder or chest. Agricola's 1529 depiction of the instrument shows it with three strings, each tuned a fifth apart. Notably, Agricola is the first to document the existence of the instrument in different sizes: discantus, altus, tenor, and bassus.
The term rebec comes from variations of the word in different languages: rebebe, reberbe, and rebesbe in French; and ribibe, ribible, rubebe, rubible, and rybybe in English (Sarı, 2016). However, it seems more likely that the term derives from the Arabic root rabba, which means "to collect, arrange, assemble together." This makes sense in the context of how the bow, when applied to a stringed instrument, "collects" or "arranges" a number of short notes into a continuous, long note, a concept that aligns with the terminology used by Arab theorists (Farmer, 1930: 776).
The term rebec did not appear in Latin. In the Byzantine Empire, the instrument was referred to as lyra, but once the instrument spread across Europe, it adopted the name rebec, derived from the Arabic rebâb, rabâb, rubeba, rubeb, rebecca, and rebeccum. Later, the Germans referred to it as the geige (Sarı, 2016). These terms persist today in the Iberian Peninsula, with the rabeca folk fiddle in Portugal, and rabâb and lyra instruments are still used in North Africa and the Balkans. In the 15th and 16th centuries, variations of the word emerged, including rabec, rebequin, rabecca, rebicchino, and rebekke. It has been suggested that the r-b-c form of the word could have originated from a shortened form of rabé griego, which refers to the Greek lyra (Sarı, 2016).
"And pleyen songes on a small rubible;
Thereto he song somtyme a loud quynyble;
And wel he koude pleye on a gyterne."
— Chaucer
The instrument in Europe deviated from the oriental style of playing on the lap or left leg/knee, and was generally played in an upward position on the breast, shoulder, or neck. In Byzantium, both techniques were used (Martínez, 2002). This difference is evident when comparing the artwork from Spain, where the Moorish rabâb appears in the miniatures of the late 13th-century Cantigas de Santa Maria manuscript, played in a downward position. In contrast, rebec-type instruments in the artwork of northern Europe are depicted as being played in an upward position.
Spanish culture and art were isolated from the rest of Europe for several centuries, developing its own unique features. During this time, Spanish art and music were open to post-Carolingian European influences, which became prominent with the rise of the Romanesque period. This period was seemingly favoured in the 11th century under the reign of Gregory VII (Martínez, 2002). However, as Ian Woodfield writes, the Kingdom of Aragon was the primary region where the use of the rebab remained endemic. This kingdom, centred in Aragon in northeastern Spain, extended its influence over a much wider area: from southern France to the Pays Valencia and beyond in Spain, through the Balearic Islands, Sardinia, and the Kingdom of Naples in Italy, even reaching Sicily. This broad area of influence played a significant role in the history of bowed instruments in Europe.
The lira (also referred to as gigues) appears in Romanesque art alongside numerous instruments of Byzantine origin. However, it is not until the second half of the 12th century that we begin to see depictions of instruments of both European and Islamic origin (Martínez, 2002). A common theme in Romanesque art is the representation of King David, often shown playing the harp. However, under the influence of Byzantine art, David is also depicted playing a bowed instrument, specifically the lira (Martínez, 2002).
There are several notable examples of King David playing the Byzantine lira in Western art, including on the Facade of the Lamb at the San Isidoro in León, the Gate of Las Platerías in Santiago de Compostela, in Migeville, at St. Sernin in Toulouse, and in the Psalter of Soignies (Martínez, 2002).
Additionally, a type of rebec is depicted in the monastery of Kalenić, dating from the end of the first to the second decade of the 15th century (Pejović, 1982). The instrument is shown being held on the shoulder, further reflecting the evolution of stringed instruments during this period.
The Byzantine lyra at Dečani shares similarities with the lirica and the Macedonian gadulka. Even the gusle, a traditional Serbian instrument used for accompanying epic singing, is represented in various icons (Pejović, 1982).
Gǎdulka
The gadulka, an instrument found in Bulgaria and surrounding regions, continues to be an important part of the musical tradition. Its name is derived from the old Bulgarian verb gaditi, meaning "to sound." The gadulka is pear-shaped, typically made from materials such as pear or cherry wood, and in the western part of Bulgaria, it accompanies certain epic songs tied to the national struggle for freedom. The strings are stopped laterally rather than being pressed to a fingerboard. Some versions of the gadulka also include between three and ten sympathetic strings, creating a rich resonance (Martínez, 2002).
In both Anatolia and the Balkans, instruments with similar characteristics, such as the gadulka, the kemençe, and others, share a common design—most notably the pear shape—and a technique that involves playing by touching the strings with nails, rather than with fingers. This method of playing, as well as the pear-shaped body, has led to the classification of these instruments into the same family (Martínez, 2002).
The pear-shaped rebec eventually fell out of demand with the rise of the viol and violin. However, the instrument has persisted in various cultures, acquiring different names and forms as it adapted to different musical contexts. In Greece, the rebec evolved into the lyra, used for accompanying dances at weddings, festivals, and other social gatherings. Similarly, the instrument reached the Aegean Islands and Crete from Byzantine Istanbul, where it became an integral part of local traditions. The lyra eventually became a symbol of the cultural identity of these communities (Martínez, 2002).
In southern Italy, the instrument is known as the lyrica or lijerica, where it serves the same function as a dance accompaniment. Versions of the instrument are also played in Macedonia and parts of Croatia, particularly in areas that were once part of the former Yugoslavia. Over time, this instrument spread widely across the region, adapting to various musical styles and cultures, further cementing its role as a key component of regional musical identity (Martínez, 2002).
The Gǎdulka in Cultural Practice
The gǎdulka has played a role in cultural practices, particularly in accompanying folk dances, New Year ceremonies, weddings, festivals, and entertainment venues. Its presence in nightclubs has grown since the 1980s, reflecting the instrument's enduring relevance in modern cultural contexts (Buchanan, 1991; Rice, 2004). During the communist era, state-sponsored folk orchestras in Bulgaria—designed to represent national cultural heritage—were arranged in a manner similar to the violin family, from soprano to double bass. By 1989, the gǎdulka had become part of the burgeoning world music industry. Beyond formal performances, the instrument also has a place in street music, where it is played by buskers and local musicians.
In the larger cultural context, the gǎdulka shares its heritage with instruments like the lyra. The evolution of these instruments reflects the region's complex cultural interactions over centuries, including the innovations of Greek-born kemenche master Vasilâki (1845–1907) and the renowned tanbûr player Tanbûri Cemil Bey (1871–1916), who introduced these instruments into classical ensembles known as fine saz music (Rice, 2004). These musicians contributed to the gǎdulka's integration into both classical and folk music traditions.
Design and Regional Variations
The gǎdulka is a member of the larger family of bowed instruments, with its design resembling the rebec. The instrument typically has three strings, although versions with more strings are also known. A unique feature of the gǎdulka, particularly in regions such as Thrace and the Balkan mountains, is the use of sympathetic strings, which enhance the instrument's resonant, ethereal sound. These versions of the gǎdulka are often referred to as lingurski or "gypsy" gǎdulkas, a term that reflects its association with the Romani communities.
The instrument's tunings vary by region, but the most common configurations are A-E-A, A-A-E, and A-E-D. The sympathetic strings are often tuned to chromatic notes, though not always in alignment with the main strings. However, gǎdulkas with multiple sympathetic strings are less common.
The gǎdulka is part of a wider family of instruments spread across Eastern Europe and the Balkans, with similar instruments like the gudok (гудок) in Russia and the hudok (гудїк) in Ukraine. While these instruments have largely fallen out of use, their historical significance as bowed instruments with sympathetic strings links them directly to the gǎdulka. In fact, the gudok and hudok represent some of the earliest variants of the gǎdulka, sharing many design features, including the pear-shaped body and sympathetic strings.
In addition to the gǎdulka, there are several regional variations of similar instruments. The kemene, kemenche, tsigulka, g'ola, and other regional names are used to describe instruments that are functionally and acoustically similar to the gǎdulka. These names vary depending on the region, but they all share common characteristics in their design and playing technique. Notably, the gǎdulka has maintained its importance across several cultural contexts, including Turkish gypsy music and other Balkan traditions, where it is sometimes referred to as a lyra or kemenche.
Historical Context and Symbolism in Art
The gǎdulka and its predecessors have a long history intertwined with the cultural and political developments of the region. Instruments like the lyra and the rebec were introduced to Europe through the Byzantine Empire and the Islamic world, where they underwent significant evolution. The gǎdulka shares its roots with the medieval rebec and the lyra used in the Byzantine Empire, both of which were widely depicted in Romanesque art. The lyra, in particular, was often associated with the biblical figure of King David, who was shown playing the instrument in religious artworks. These depictions are found in several locations, including the façade of the Lamb at the San Isidoro in León, the gate of Las Platerías in Santiago de Compostela, St. Sernin de Toulouse, and the Psalter of Soignies (Martínez, 2002).
A similar tradition can be seen in the depiction of bowed instruments in the monastery of Kalenić (early 15th century), where the gǎdulka is shown being held on the shoulder (Pejović, 1982). The Byzantine lyra was also present in icons, further linking the gǎdulka to the long-standing tradition of bowed string instruments in the region. These early representations of the lyra and rebec illustrate the cross-cultural exchange that shaped the development of these instruments.
The gǎdulka, like many other traditional instruments, has evolved over time through interaction with different cultures and musical practices. From its origins in the Middle Ages, influenced by the rebec and lyra, to its contemporary forms seen in Bulgaria, Greece, Turkey, and the Balkans, the gǎdulka has remained a vital part of cultural and musical traditions. Whether played in folk dance performances or integrated into classical music ensembles, its resonant, distinctive sound continues to captivate musicians and audiences alike, maintaining its place as a symbol of the cultural richness of the region.
The ıklığ and Its Regional Variants
The ıklığ (or ıklığ) is a traditional Turkish bowed instrument with a wide variety of regional names and forms. It is known as rubaba in southeastern Turkey, kabak and kemane in Hatay province, kamancha in Azerbaijan, and çepane, gıcak, yaylı kopuz, cicak, gıçek, yık, ik, iğil, Iyık, kıyak, and many others in Central Asia and the Caucasus. It is considered the earliest Turkish bowed instrument, introduced to Anatolia by the Turks, where it eventually acquired the name kemençe (Farmer, 1930; Sarı, 2016).
Construction and Characteristics
The ıklığ is defined by a distinctive body, which is often made from a gourd, though wooden and even turtle-shell versions have also been found. The instrument's shape and construction are reminiscent of the rebec family of bowed instruments, and it is typically carved from a single piece of material, like the rebec.
Classical Kemenche
The classical kemençe (also called kemençe in Turkish) is a smaller variant of the ıklığ, measuring around 40 cm long and 15 cm wide. The body is piriform (pear-shaped) and is traditionally carved from a single piece of wood, with inlays of ivory, mother-of-pearl, or tortoiseshell sometimes added for decoration. Unlike the rebec of Renaissance Europe, such as those depicted by Praetorius, the kemençe does not have a fingerboard or nut, meaning the length of the strings is not equalised in the same manner. This gives the instrument a unique tonal quality, distinct from European bowed instruments of the same era.
The kemençe has gut strings, with the lowest string often silver-wound. Its soundholes are D-shaped, which contributes to the instrument's bright, resonant sound. Additionally, the kemençe generally includes a sound post, which helps support the structure and enhance the volume of the instrument. The strings are stopped using the fingernails, similar to instruments like the sarangi. During performance, the long pegs rest on the chest, allowing for a close and intimate connection with the player's body.
Other Rebec-Type Instruments
The ıklığ and its regional variants share several key characteristics with other rebec-type instruments found across the world. Some of the more notable examples include:
Galician Rabel (Rabel Gallego): This instrument, originating from Galicia in Spain, has two strings and a longer, thinner body compared to the typical rebec. It produces a unique sound, fitting for traditional music.
Chuniri (ჭუნირი) of Georgia: The Chuniri has an oval body and is typically strung with two or three horsehair strings. There are different regional variants of this instrument, such as the Rachian Chianuri, which has a boat-like body, and the Khevsuretian and Tushetian Chianuris, which have round bodies. The player touches the strings but not the neck, creating harmonics. The bridge is flat, so all three strings are played simultaneously, contributing to the distinctive sound of the instrument.
Abkharza of Georgia: This two-stringed instrument has a boat-shaped body, typically carved from a single piece of wood, resembling the rebec in design and function.
Kamanjah (كمنجة): This variant is made of coconut and sheep hide, with anywhere from one to four strings. It is characterised by its spike, allowing the instrument to be held and played in a similar manner to other rebec-type instruments.
Kamaicha found in Rajasthan, India: This ancient bowed instrument, one of the oldest in its class, features four strings, often accompanied by sympathetic strings. It has a rich history in both folk and classical music.
Rebab Andaluz: A rare instrument found in Morocco and other parts of North Africa, the Rebab Andaluz was brought to these regions by the Moors after the Reconquista, when they were expelled from Spain in the 15th century. This instrument is a direct descendant of the rebab and retains many of the characteristics of its Iberian forebears.
The ıklığ and its many regional forms, from the kemençe of Turkish classical music to the Chuniri of Georgia, are part of a broader family of bowed string instruments that have been shaped by centuries of cultural exchange and musical evolution. While these instruments differ in size, shape, and regional variations, they share a fundamental design principle: a pear-shaped body and the use of a bow to produce their distinctive, resonant sounds. These instruments, while diverse in their appearances and names, all trace their origins to the same early traditions that gave birth to the rebec and its many variations across Europe, the Middle East, and Central Asia.
From their use in folk traditions and wedding ceremonies to their integration into classical music ensembles, these instruments continue to play a vital role in their respective cultural contexts, carrying with them centuries of musical heritage.
The Viola d'Amore
The viola d'amore is a distinctive and historically significant stringed instrument that occupies a special niche in the world of bowed instruments. Famously described by Leopold Mozart in his Versuch einer gründlichen Violinschule (1756), the viola d'amore is said to produce "a charming sound, especially in the stillness of the evening." Known for its warm, resonant tone and its ethereal qualities, the viola d'amore's sound has intrigued composers and musicians throughout its history, but it has never enjoyed the widespread popularity of its cousin, the violin.
Historical Context and Decline in Popularity
At its peak in the 17th and 18th centuries, the viola d'amore was a popular and respected instrument. Many beautiful examples of the viola d'amore were crafted by renowned makers in Italy, Germany, France, and Spain during its heyday, and numerous schools of performance and methods were written for the instrument. However, like many other cultural institutions of the 18th century, the viola d'amore fell into decline during the tumultuous periods that followed the French Revolution. As described by the historian Shirley in 1920, "Many beautiful specimens of the viola d'amore were produced… but like so many other eighteenth-century institutions, the viola d'amore was swept away and forgotten in the cataclysm of the French Revolution. And during the Empire, the sound of fife and drum did not allow it to be remembered."
After the revolution, the shift in musical tastes, the rise of the orchestra, and the emphasis on the violin and its family of instruments led to the eventual fading of the viola d'amore from mainstream music. While the violin and viola solidified their roles in orchestras and chamber music, the viola d'amore remained on the periphery.
Despite its historical importance, the viola d'amore is not as commonly seen or heard as the violin or even the viola. There are several factors that contribute to this.
Lack of Standardisation: One of the major challenges with the viola d'amore is its lack of standardisation during its period of use. The viola d'amore saw significant variation in its design, even at the height of its popularity. There was no clear consensus on its exact dimensions, number of strings, or playing technique. Some versions had as few as six strings, while others had as many as seven. Additionally, the presence of sympathetic strings further adds to its unique sound, but also makes the instrument more complicated to play and understand.
Transitional and Archaic Forms: The viola d'amore was not a single, clearly defined instrument; it existed in a range of transitional forms that were continuously evolving. During the time of renowned makers like Stradivari, Amati, and Ruckers, there were numerous evolving models, archaic forms, and experimental designs. These instruments were produced in a variety of ways, and some were more successful or better known than others. The lack of a standardised design made it difficult for the instrument to maintain a clear and consistent role in orchestral or chamber music settings, where precision in instrument design became increasingly important.
Decline After the French Revolution: The upheaval caused by the French Revolution and the subsequent political and social changes in Europe contributed to the decline of many aspects of cultural life, including the prominence of certain musical instruments. The viola d'amore, with its delicate and somewhat unusual sound, was overshadowed by the more robust and versatile violin family of instruments. The viola d'amore became more of a niche instrument, appreciated by connoisseurs and scholars, but less integrated into mainstream performance practices.
The Rise of the Violin: As the violin rose in prominence throughout the 18th century and into the 19th century, it became the primary bowed instrument in both orchestras and chamber ensembles. The violin's expressive range, combined with its powerful sound, made it ideal for the orchestral and solo roles that became increasingly central to the classical music tradition. The viola d'amore, by contrast, was seen as more of a decorative or specialised instrument, often employed in smaller, intimate settings or for particular effects rather than as part of the main orchestral lineup.
Revivals and Modern Interest: Despite its decline, the viola d'amore has not been entirely forgotten. In recent years, there has been renewed interest in early music and historical instruments, leading to a revival of the viola d'amore. Musicians and scholars have rediscovered the instrument and have even begun to make new replicas based on historical models. Composers such as Hindemith, Prokofiev, Massenet, Berlioz, and Strauss wrote for the viola d'amore, and its unique tonal qualities continue to be admired. However, the instrument's relatively complex nature, lack of standardisation, and niche position in classical music history have kept it from becoming a common presence in modern orchestras or ensembles.
Composers and the Viola d'Amore
Throughout history, many composers have been fascinated by the unique tonal qualities of the viola d'amore. Some of the most notable composers who have written for the viola d'amore include Haydn, Prokofiev, Janáček and Hindemith.
The viola d'amore also continues to inspire modern composers and performers who appreciate its haunting sound and its rich history in early music.
Physical Description and Common Features
Typically, the viola d'amore has a body resembling that of a treble viol—a family of instruments that emerged around the 1490s—characterised by sloping shoulders (similar to a double bass) and a flat back. It generally has six or seven playing strings and an additional set of sympathetic strings running through the bridge and beneath the fingerboard. These sympathetic strings are not played directly by the performer but resonate in sympathy with the playing strings, adding a shimmering, ethereal quality to the sound.
One famous example of the viola d'amore is a German instrument from the early 1700s, found in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna. It has six gut strings for playing and six metal sympathetic strings. This instrument is typical of the standard "stereotypical" design of the viola d'amore: a treble viol profile with the distinctive sympathetic string setup. However, this definition does not account for the full diversity of the instrument, as exceptions to this basic design existed throughout its history.
The viola d'amore defies easy definition, largely due to the lack of standardisation throughout its history. While modern instruments often adhere to the basic layout of six or seven strings with sympathetic strings, early examples varied widely in both structure and setup. Some versions of the viola d'amore resemble the violin in shape, with a curved back, and some had frets, a feature associated with the viols. This diversity of designs complicates the task of defining what exactly constitutes a viola d'amore.
One significant historical exception is the viola d'amore's initial lack of sympathetic strings. Early versions of the instrument, especially in the 16th and 17th centuries, may have had four or five strings without sympathetic ones. As late as 1679, the term "d'amore" was used to describe a simple five-string violin (which was not equipped with sympathetic strings), as seen in Evelyn's Diary and Praetorius' writings. In fact, Praetorius (1619) mentioned that early versions of the viola d'amore were sometimes no more than an ornamented viola bastarda—a type of tenor viol—that incorporated sympathetic strings only later.
The Viola Bastarda
The origins of the viola d'amore are murky, and no single country or region can claim to be its birthplace. Some scholars have speculated that it originated in England, Italy, Germany, Austria, or even Arabia. The historical record points to southern Germany as one of the regions where the instrument was most widely cultivated.
One key piece of evidence comes from Praetorius, who described the viola bastarda as a tenor viol (also called lyra-viol in England) that had sympathetic strings added by the English. It is believed that the viola d'amore may have evolved directly from the viola bastarda. Further supporting this theory is John Playford's 1661 preface to Musicks Recreation on the Viol, Lyra-Way, where he attributes the viola d'amore's creation to Daniel Farunt, an inventor who designed an instrument with lute strings and wire strings arranged so that sympathetic strings vibrated beneath the main strings, creating a harmonious resonance.
As mentioned, the viola d'amore varied greatly in terms of string count and configuration. While six-string instruments were most common during the Baroque period, there were also versions with seven strings. The tuning of the instrument also evolved. While the six-stringed d'amore typically followed a tuning similar to the viola or violin, the seven-stringed models were introduced in the 19th century. Christian Urham of Paris is credited with standardising the fourteen-string instrument and its tuning in 1832, although fourteen-string versions of the viola d'amore can be found in the 18th century, such as the one built by Johannes Florenus Guidantus (1687–1760) of Bologna.
However, many original instruments were adapted in the 18th and 19th centuries to conform to newer aesthetic and musical trends. An example of this is an instrument in the Music Museum of Barcelona that originally had fourteen strings but was later altered to have only six strings, with no sympathetic strings, likely in the 19th century by the maker Diego Sánchez.
Etymology and Symbolic Interpretations
The name "viola d'amore" has uncertain origins. The name might have been inspired by the soft, low and delicate tone the instrument produced, especially when strung with wire strings. The "love" association might also be connected to the widespread use of the blindfolded cupid symbol replacing the scroll of the instrument.
There is a popular, yet erroneous theory regarding the origin of the name "viola d'amore" that links it to the Arabic or Islamic world. According to this theory, the name "viola d'amore" is thought to be a distortion of "de'mori", "viol de Moor", or "viola da Mori" ("viol of the Moors"). Proponents of this theory point to the flame-shaped sound holes often found on the instrument, claiming that they are reminiscent of Islamic symbols such as the scimitar or flame of Islam.
One of the main arguments supporting this theory is the distinctive shape of the sound holes, which can sometimes appear flame-like or sword-shaped. These forms are thought to resemble the scimitar, an iconic symbol in Islamic and Middle Eastern iconography. However, historical and technical evidence does not support the claim that the viola d'amore has any direct connection to Islamic design. First, the shape of the sound holes on the viola d'amore varies widely. While the flame-like design may be present on some instruments, other instruments feature a more traditional D-shape, which evolved from earlier forms such as the rebec.
In fact, no known Islamic instruments from the period make use of a sword or flame-shaped sound hole, which casts doubt on the theory that these shapes were derived from such symbolism. More convincingly, the flame-shaped holes on violas likely developed simply as part of the evolution of stringed instruments in Europe, akin to the F-holes found on violin-family instruments.
While it is true that sympathetic strings were utilised in a range of Eastern instruments—including the rebāb, and sarangi—this does not imply that the viola d'amore is of Islamic or Arabic origin. The association with the sarangi, for instance, is misleading. While the sarangi today features sympathetic strings, it was originally a very different instrument, played with a plectrum, and it only acquired sympathetic strings later. Furthermore, the design and function of Indian and Middle Eastern sympathetic strings differs significantly from those used in the viola d'amore. In Indian instruments, sympathetic strings are often positioned along the side of the neck and not under the fingerboard as in the viola d'amore.
One of the primary misunderstandings stems from the general association of sympathetic strings with Eastern instruments, which has led some historians to incorrectly assume that the viola d'amore was influenced by these instruments. However, the viol family itself likely provided the necessary framework for the introduction of sympathetic strings to bowed instruments in Europe in the 17th century, much earlier than the viola d'amore emerged as a distinct instrument.
The viola d'amore's true origin appears to lie in Europe, specifically in the viola bastarda and the baryton. These instruments, which preceded the viola d'amore, also featured sympathetic strings, but they were already part of the European stringed instrument tradition, particularly in southern Germany and Austria.
The baryton, a favoured instrument of the Habsburg court during the 17th and 18th centuries, had sympathetic strings, and its popularity likely influenced the development of the viola d'amore. The sweet resonance of the viola d'amore is a direct reflection of the wire-strung baryton tradition, where gut strings eventually replaced the brass or wire strings originally used.
The name "viola d'amore" may have been linked to the symbol of Cupid in the Renaissance, as a blindfolded Cupid is sometimes carved into the scrolls of these instruments. The use of flame-like shapes in the instrument's decoration can be interpreted as a symbolic representation of the burning passion associated with love, similar to how Cupid is depicted in mythological contexts such as Botticelli's Primavera (note Cupid's curved sword).
The "flame of Islam" theory also fails to recognise that the sound hole shapes of stringed instruments like the viola d'amore were determined by aesthetic preferences and acoustic needs rather than symbolic or cultural motifs. The development of f-holes on viols, including the viola d'amore, was a European innovation that originated with Andrea Amati in the 16th century and later perfected by Stradivarius.
Contrary to the Eastern origins theory, the viola d'amore did not appear significantly before the 17th century. In the 16th century, the evolution of the viola d'amore was more likely influenced by instruments like the lira da braccio. The viola d'amore emerged as part of the Baroque fascination with ornamental, highly decorative instruments, a trend seen in other instruments like the hardingfele and various viols. Instruments from the 16th century that were similar to the viola d'amore, such as the violetta, show that it was indeed European in origin, evolving from the viola bastarda and baryton traditions, with its name reflecting the instrument's affectionate and romantic symbolism rather than any connection to Islamic or Arabic origins.
Tuning and Performance Practices
Composers may suggest a specific scordatura, but a common tuning for seven-string instruments is an arpeggio of D with a low A, with the third string from the top tuned to either F or F-sharp.
Like the upper strings, there are various methods for tuning the sympathetic strings. In most cases, the sympathetic strings are not directly played by the musician.
There are numerous tunings for the sympathetic strings of the viola d'amore. Henri Casadesus suggested a chromatic tuning, but these strings may also be tuned to match the scale or tonic chord of the piece, or they may simply be tuned to match the top strings.
Typically, the number of sympathetic strings matches the number of top strings, although there are exceptions. One example is the Violett. The Violett varied in design, but it commonly had six or seven top strings and fourteen sympathetic strings. Similarly, it is not uncommon to find a hardingfele with four top strings and five sympathetic strings.
While the typical viola d'amore has six or seven top strings, with the same number of sympathetic strings, this has never been standardised. Many instruments exist with more, or in some cases fewer, strings. For the purposes of this method, no specific size of instrument is required. The approach can be applied to an instrument with four top strings and four sympathetic strings, and any variations will be specified when referring to a larger instrument. In practice, everything discussed can also be applied to the violin. However, players of larger instruments will need to adjust by transposing down one or two octaves.
An inquiry into tuning the viola d'amore will often suggest a standard tuning for a seven-string instrument: A-D-A-D-F-A-D, with the F string sharpened for pieces in a major key. Some Baroque methods, such as the 1782 "Méthode facile pour la viole d'amour" by Louis-Toussaint Milandre, work exclusively with the sharp F. Another commonly cited tuning system is D-F#-A-D-F#-A-D.
However, in practice, tuning can vary widely depending on the composer and the style of the piece. Often, composers will specify the required tuning. For example, around 1760, Hubert provides the D major tuning for sonatas in E, G, C, D, Bb, Eb, and F major, while an A major sonata calls for a six-string instrument tuned low to high as D-A-D-F#-A-D. Christian Pezold (1677–1733) does not provide tunings for his Partitas, but the F major partita is suggested by Mátyás Bartha (2017) to be played on a six-string instrument tuned: F-A-C-F-A-D.
In the Recueil de pièces by Ariosti, no tuning is provided, which is frustrating because it seems that different tunings may be required for each sonata. Telemann, in his Trio Sonata TWV 42:D15, does give a tuning indication, though the absence of a clef makes it somewhat ambiguous. This is written for a six-string instrument, but unusually, the middle two strings are tuned just a tone (or semitone) apart.
Rust, in his c.1765 Sonata for Viola d'amore in D Major, CzaR 85, does not offer a tuning indication. In Vivaldi's A Minor Concerto, RV 397, he specifies: C-F-A-C-F-C. For the Concerto in D Major, RV 392, he uses: D-A-D-F#-A-D.
Hindemith's Kleine Sonata für Viola d'amore und Klavier, Op. 25 No. 2 (1922), does not provide a tuning indication in the score, but the 1976 edition specifies: D-F#-A-D-F#-A-D. These examples show that while the seven-string instrument was not widely used in Baroque music (though it certainly existed, as there was much experimentation at the time), there was no standardised tuning for the instrument. Additionally, the tuning does not necessarily correspond to the key of the piece, and, even in Hindemith's case, no tuning for the sympathetic strings is given.
The 1724 Six Viola d'Amore Lessons by Ariosti offer a fascinating collection of pieces. These are particularly intriguing because, contrary to common belief, they are not written for the viola d'amore—they were actually intended for violinists as an introduction to the tuning challenges of the viola d'amore. Five different tunings are provided for the six pieces. What makes this work complicated is its unique notation system: Ariosti writes everything as though in 1st position, specifying which finger to use and on which string (unless a fingering is indicated, in which case the player assumes open strings). The composer also uses four different clefs, each to denote a different hand position. This system of notation never gained widespread use, but for a player interested in tackling works like the Recueil de pièces or exploring scordatura on the violin, these pieces offer more than just a curiosity.
In contemporary music, the composer typically specifies the tuning they intend for the piece. However, when performing Baroque repertoire where the tuning (or even the number of strings on the instrument) is not explicitly stated, it is up to the performer to analyse the composition and determine the appropriate tuning. For examples like the Recueil de pièces, the performer must rely on analysis of the sonatas, as well as the Lessons where tuning and fingering are given, to deduce the correct tuning and fingering.
Sympathetic String Tuning Practices
When approaching the topic of tuning, we cannot overlook perhaps the largest body of works for scordatura violin ever written: the folk music of the Norwegian hardingfele. This instrument has a wide variety of tunings, and the tuning of the (four or five) sympathetic strings is also specified. There are between 20 and 30 different tunings used for the hardingfele, but it's important to note that these tunings do not conform to a standard pitch. Some instruments may be tuned a tone or more higher than the written pitches.
Fiddle playing in Scandinavia has long been entwined with myths and legends involving devils, trolls, and water spirits, and as such, the different tunings of the hardingfele are often believed to carry almost magical or mystical qualities. One of the most common tunings for the hardingfele is A-D-A-E, which has several names, including oppstilt, stille, vanleg, or høg bas. Another well-known tuning is A-D-F#-E, referred to as Huldre tuning, named after the beautiful women in folklore who are said to lure men into the underworld. A more unusual tuning, Lausbas (loose bass), involves tuning the G string down a fifth, to D-D-A-E.
Tuning the sympathetic strings of the viola d'amore can be more challenging to establish. Because it takes considerable effort to replace a broken string, it's advisable not to take risks by tuning them too high.
There are several options for tuning these strings, and ultimately, the decision rests with the performer and/or composer. The sympathetic strings generally work best when tuned to correspond with the tonic or the fifth (the nearest partials in the overtone series) of each top string. If they are tuned too low, they may produce a buzzing sound. For optimal resonance, it is recommended to tune the lower sympathetic strings either an octave or a fifth above the top string.
Remember, the sympathetic strings vibrate in sympathy with the top strings, and this only occurs when their tuning corresponds closely to the fundamental or the overtones of the top strings. Therefore, tuning the sympathetic strings too low does not make much sense if you are aiming for a resonant sound.
If you are playing in a key other than the one the viola d'amore is tuned to, it might be worthwhile to retune the sympathetic strings. You can adjust them to correspond with the tonic chord of the piece or the scale of the key you are playing in.
Ultimately, the tuning of the sympathetic strings is something the performer must experiment with to achieve the desired effect. The performer alone experiences the full resonance of these strings, while the listener perceives them more subtly, as the sympathetic vibrations are often quieter and less noticeable to the audience.
The Hardingfele
The hardingfele, or Hardanger fiddle, is a traditional Norwegian violin characterised by its sympathetic strings. While the exact origins of the violin in Norway are unclear, it is known that some form of fiddle-like instrument existed by the 1600s, and may have even been known earlier. A notable early reference is a stone carving in Trondheim Cathedral, which depicts a bowed harp, similar to the tagelharpa (a term more commonly used in Sweden). The name tagel refers to the horsehair used in the instrument's strings, although this term for the instrument was only coined in the 20th century.
While 20th-century scholars initially attributed the Trondheim Cathedral carving to the 12th century, it is now believed to date from the second quarter of the 14th century (Andersson, 1970). Further east in Scandinavia and the Baltics, similar bowed string instruments can be found, such as the Jouhikko or Jouhikantele, which is now popular in Finland. Though not exactly the same as the tagelharpa, there are parallels with other early bowed instruments, such as the Welsh crwth. In the Havod Manuscript (1605–1610), a three-stringed crwth is depicted alongside a straight bow similar to the one seen in the Trondheim Cathedral carving.
Earlier depictions of the crwth appear in 14th and 15th-century England, as well as in 11th-century France in the Tropaire de Saint Martial. The Tropaire de Saint Martial is especially significant due to its depiction of Saint Martial dressed in an oriental-style costume, reminiscent of themes found in ancient myths of Asia Minor, such as the story of Gilgamesh. This connection to oriental imagery also ties Saint Martial to Palestinian origins, linking him with Christ in a broader religious and cultural context (Andersson, 1970).
The hardingfele first appeared in the mid-1600s, though it is likely that German and Italian instruments were known in rural Norway for some time prior to this. The hardingfele is a type of violin equipped with four additional sympathetic strings, which is similar to the viola d'amore. It is believed that the hardingfele shares its ancestry with the instruments of the British Isles—particularly England and Scotland—regions that had strong trade connections with Norway, especially through the timber trade.
Following its emergence around 1650, the hardingfele quickly gained popularity throughout Norway during the 1700s. In particular, fiddle makers from the Hardanger region became renowned across the country for their exceptional craftsmanship. Notable among these were Isak Nielsen Botnen (1669–1759) and his son Trond Isaksen Flatebø (1713–1772), both of whom were highly regarded for their fiddles. As a result of their influence, the term Hardingfele came to be used to describe most Norwegian fiddles today.
The earliest known hardingfele comes from Ullensvang in the Hardanger region, located about 80 kilometers south of Bergen, and is dated to around 1651 (Bjørndal, 1956). This instrument is known as the Jaastadfela, named after its maker, Ole Jonsen Jaastad (1621–1694). It features four top strings and two sympathetic strings. Interestingly, the Swedish låtfiol (folk violin) also has four top strings and two sympathetic strings, highlighting a shared characteristic between these regional instruments.
Until recently, the hardingfele retained many characteristics of the Baroque violin. It was smaller than a modern violin, with thinner strings and a flatter fingerboard and bridge. However, throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, the instrument underwent continuous development, gradually adopting more features of the modern violin. It became larger, less curved, and incorporated more decorative elements from the traditional rosemåling style. By the 19th century, fiddle-making had also spread eastward to Telemark. Modern hardingfeler, particularly those made from the second half of the 20th century onward, have followed a design more closely aligned with the modern violin.
Baroque Pieces Featuring Viola d'Amore
Solo and Chamber Works
Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber (1644–1704)
Sonata XI in the Mystery (Rosary) Sonatas (originally for violin, often adapted for viola d'amore).
Harmonia artificioso-ariosa (especially Partita VII, which includes scordatura parts adaptable to viola d'amore).
Johann Joseph Vilsmayr (1663–1722)
Artificiosus Concentus pro Camera (features pieces in stylus phantasticus; while written for violin, they can be adapted for viola d'amore).
Attilio Ariosti (1666–1729)
Recueil de Pièces pour la Viola d'Amour (London, ca. 1718).
Six Viola d'Amore Lessons (1724) - pedagogical works for violinists learning viola d'amore techniques.
Antonio Vivaldi (1678–1741)
Concerto in D major, RV 392 (for viola d'amore, strings, and continuo).
Concerto in D minor, RV 393 (for viola d'amore, strings, and continuo).
Concerto in A major, RV 396 (for viola d'amore, strings, and continuo).
Concerto in A minor, RV 397 (for viola d'amore, strings, and continuo).
Georg Philipp Telemann (1681–1767)
Concerto in D major for Viola d'Amore, Strings, and Continuo (TWV 51:D9).
Trio Sonata in D major (TWV 42:D15), for viola d'amore, viola, and basso continuo.
Various cantatas featuring obbligato parts for viola d'amore, such as Cantata: "Saget, Steine, mir an" (TWV 1:1328).
Chamber works with flexible instrumentation that accommodate viola d'amore, including quartets and trios from his Tafelmusik.
Carl Philipp Stamitz (1745–1801)
Concerto for Viola d'Amore and Orchestra in D major.
Concerto for Viola d'Amore and Orchestra in G major.
Friedrich Wilhelm Rust (1739–1796)
Sonata for Viola d'amore in D Major, CzaR 85.
Carl Joseph Toeschi (1731–1788)
Various chamber works incorporating viola d'amore.
František Gotz (18th century)
Concertos and chamber pieces for viola d'amore.
Later Composers
Paul Hindemith (1895–1963)
Kleine Sonata für Viola d'amore und Klavier, Op. 25 No. 2 (1922).
Other Notable Works
Various pieces by Haydn, Prokofiev, Janáček, Massenet, Berlioz, and Richard Strauss demonstrate the continued fascination with the instrument's unique tonal qualities throughout the classical and modern periods.
Recommended Listening
Kemani (Turkish Violin / Turkish Fiddle)
Hasan Esen – Sine Kemani Taksimleri (2010)
An album showcasing the improvisational capabilities of the kemani, featuring traditional Turkish maqam structures and virtuosic taksim performances.
Alper Asutay – Taksim on Viola d'Amore
A fascinating fusion featuring elements of kemani playing within Turkish music alongside the viola d'amore, demonstrating the cross-cultural connections between these instruments.
Neyzen Tevik & Kemani – Traditional Turkish Music
Traditional Turkish music with the kemani in both classical and folk settings, providing insight into the instrument's role in Ottoman musical heritage.
Tanburi Cemil Bey – Historic Recordings
Though primarily known for tanbur, Cemil Bey's recordings include kemani performances that showcase the instrument's integration into classical Turkish music.
Rebec
Andrew Lawrence-King – The Medieval Rebec
A beautiful exploration of medieval music using the rebec, featuring works from troubadour traditions and early polyphony.
The Early Music Consort of London – Medieval Music
A comprehensive collection featuring the rebec alongside other early instruments in their historical context.
Paul O'Dette & The Baltimore Consort – A Medieval Christmas
A festive album showcasing the rebec in a medieval Christmas context, demonstrating the instrument's role in seasonal celebrations.
Jordi Savall & Hespèrion XXI – La Música de las Tres Culturas
Exploring the musical traditions of medieval Spain, featuring rebec in the context of Christian, Islamic, and Jewish musical traditions.
Vielle
The vielle is another key medieval bowed string instrument, crucial in the development of European folk and court music.
Hesperion XXI – The Medieval Viellist
Jordi Savall's ensemble explores the vielle in early European music, showcasing its role in both sacred and secular contexts.
Early Music Consort of London – The Medieval Fiddle
A collection featuring the vielle as a central instrument in medieval music, from courtly dances to religious compositions.
Peregrina – A Medieval Musical Journey
A fascinating journey through medieval music featuring the vielle and other historical instruments in their original performance contexts.
Gadulka
Mira Kolarova – The Gadulka: Music of Bulgaria
A captivating album featuring the gadulka in traditional Bulgarian folk music, showcasing the instrument's role in wedding celebrations and folk dances.
The Bulgarka Women's Ensemble – Bulgarian Folk Songs and Gadulka
A fantastic album highlighting the gadulka alongside other traditional Bulgarian instruments, featuring complex vocal harmonies and traditional rhythms.
Vassil Goranov – Bulgarian Traditional Music
A collection of Bulgarian folk music with the gadulka at the forefront, demonstrating various regional playing styles and repertoire.
Goran Bregović – Underground (Soundtrack)
Features gadulka in contemporary Balkan music, showing the instrument's modern applications in film and popular music.
Hardanger Fiddle
Annbjørg Lien – Waltz with Me
A rich exploration of the Norwegian folk tradition featuring the hardanger fiddle in both traditional and contemporary arrangements.
Ragnhild Hemsing – Homecoming
Showcasing the hardanger fiddle's versatility in both classical and folk contexts, demonstrating the instrument's expressive range.
Hardanger Fiddle - Norway's National Instrument – Various Artists
A compilation that offers an introduction to the sounds of the hardanger fiddle in Norwegian folk music, featuring multiple regional styles.
Caoimhín Ó Raghallaigh – The Gloaming (2014)
Although Ó Raghallaigh primarily plays the Hardanger d'amore, this album blends Irish and Norwegian traditions in innovative ways.
Lars Skogstad – Hardanger Fiddle Music
A dedicated album focusing on the hardanger fiddle and its role in traditional Norwegian folk music, featuring authentic regional repertoire.
Susanne Lundeng – Slåtter from Hardanger
Traditional Norwegian folk tunes (slåtter) performed on authentic hardanger fiddle, demonstrating the instrument's connection to Norwegian cultural identity.
Viola d'Amore / Sine Keman
Garth Knox – Viola Spaces 5 Miniatures for Viola d'Amore, Oriental Blues Improvisation. Garth Knox is a leading figure in contemporary viola and viola d'amore music. His works are essential for those interested in modern techniques and extended playing methods.
Jasser Haj Youssef – Multiple Albums
Resonance (2015)
Sira (2012)
Substance (with Haïg Sarikouyoumdjian)
Youssef is a pioneer in incorporating the viola d'amore into Arabic and jazz music. His recordings demonstrate the instrument's unique role in both genres and its adaptability to non-Western musical systems.
Caoimhín Ó Raghallaigh – Multiple Collaborations
The Gloaming (2014)
All Soundings Are True (with Garth Knox, 2017)
Laghdú (with Dan Trueman, 2014)
Ó Raghallaigh plays the Hardanger d'amore, a modern variant, blending Irish and Norwegian traditions with contemporary music.
Dan Trueman – Contemporary Explorations
Laghdú (with Caoimhín Ó Raghallaigh, 2014)
The Setesdalsfele Project (various recordings)
Trueman explores new instruments like the Setesdalsfele, building upon the viola d'amore tradition while blending modern and traditional elements.
Sara Caswell – Jazz Explorations
Jazz Violin Sessions (featuring Hardanger d'amore)
The Take (Sara Caswell's jazz quartet)
Caswell is one of the few jazz violinists who works with the Hardanger d'amore, incorporating the instrument into a jazz context with remarkable success.
Hasan Esen – Sine Kemani Taksimleri (2010)
Turkish musician Esen explores improvisation on the sine keman, demonstrating the instrument's role in contemporary Turkish classical music.
Alper Asutay – Taksim on Viola d'Amore
Improvisational performances bridging Turkish maqam traditions with the viola d'amore, showcasing cross-cultural musical dialogue.
Gerald Trimble – Uncharted: A Viola Da Gamba Adventure (2014)
While primarily focused on viola da gamba, this recording includes viola d'amore works that demonstrate the instrument's relationship to the viol family.
Historical Recordings and Period Performances
Gustav Leonhardt – Bach: Brandenburg Concertos (featuring viola d'amore in historically informed performances)
Nikolaus Harnoncourt – Various Baroque recordings featuring viola d'amore in its original context.
The Academy of Ancient Music – Recordings of Vivaldi concertos featuring period viola d'amore performances.
Tafelmusik Baroque Orchestra – Telemann: Chamber Music featuring viola d'amore in authentic Baroque ensemble settings.
Contemporary Classical Works
Tan Dun – Ghost Opera (featuring viola d'amore in contemporary classical context)
Arvo Pärt – Various chamber works incorporating viola d'amore's ethereal qualities.
John Tavener – Sacred works featuring the viola d'amore's mystical sound qualities.
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